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1 ♦ social

♦ social /ˈsəʊʃl/
A a.

1 sociale: social class, classe sociale; ceto; social reforms, riforme sociali; the social contract, (filos.) il contratto sociale; (polit., econ.) il patto sociale; social problems, problemi sociali; social insurance, previdenza sociale

2 socievole; affabile; amichevole; cordiale: a social nature, un carattere socievole

3 (zool.) socievole; gregario: The ant is a social creature, le formiche sono animali gregari

4 sociale; mondano: social club, club sociale; a social evening, una serata mondana; social happenings, avvenimenti mondani; mondanità

B n.

1 (antiq.) evento mondano; serata; festa pubblica; trattenimento; raduno sociale

2 (fam. ingl.) – the social, la previdenza e assistenza sociale

● social anthropology, antropologia sociale □ social benefits, provvidenze sociali; prestazioni sociali □ a social climber, un arrivista; un arrampicatore sociale □ social climbing, (sost.) arrivismo; (agg.) arrivistico, da arrivista □ social customs, usanze sociali; comportamento in società □ social dancing, danze in sale pubbliche □ (polit.) social democracy, socialdemocrazia □ (polit.) a social democrat, un socialdemocratico □ (polit.) social democratic, socialdemocratico (agg.) □ one's social equal, una persona del proprio ceto □ social exclusion, emarginazione □ social intercourse, rapporti sociali □ social justice, giustizia sociale □ social kissing, il baciarsi come forma di saluto □ social medicine, medicina sociale □ social mobility, mobilità sociale □ social network, (sociol.) rete sociale; ( Internet) social network (servizio web che permette agli utenti di creare una rete di contatti personali con cui interagire in diversi modi) □ social networking, social networking ( creazione e interazione con una rete di contatti personali, spec. attraverso il web) □ ( Internet) social networking site, sito di social networking (► sopra) □ social science, scienze sociali; scienza sociale □ social scientist, scienziato sociale □ social security, previdenza sociale □ social security agencies, enti di assistenza sociale; istituti di previdenza sociale □ social security card, tessera della previdenza sociale (in Italia, dell'INPS) □ social security contributions, contributi (o oneri) sociali; contributi previdenziali □ (in GB e USA) social security number, (numero di) codice della previdenza sociale (funge anche da «codice fiscale» per i lavoratori dipendenti) □ social security plan, sistema previdenziale □ social services, servizi sociali □ social status, posizione sociale □ social students, studiosi di scienze sociali □ social studies, (studi di) scienze sociali □ (econ., stat.) social survey, indagine sociologica □ social system, ordinamento sociale □ social work, servizi sociali; assistenza sociale □ a social worker, un assistente sociale □ to have social tastes, essere socievole; aver gusti mondani; essere un uomo (o una donna) di mondo.

English-Italian dictionary > ♦ social
2 Caetano, Marcello José das Neves Alves

(19061980)

   Marcello Caetano, as the last prime minister of the Estado Novo, was both the heir and successor of Antônio de Oliveira Salazar. In a sense, Caetano was one of the founders and sustainers of this unusual regime and, at various crucial stages of its long life, Caetano's contribution was as important as Salazar's.

   Born in Lisbon in 1906 to a middle-class family, Caetano was a member of the student generation that rebelled against the unstable parliamentary First Republic and sought answers to Portugal's legion of troubles in conservative ideologies such as integralism, Catholic reformism, and the Italian Fascist model. One of the most brilliant students at the University of Lisbon's Law School, Caetano soon became directly involved in government service in various ministries, including Salazar's Ministry of Finance. When Caetano was not teaching full-time at the law school in Lisbon and influencing new generations of students who became critical of the regime he helped construct, Caetano was in important government posts and working on challenging assignments. In the 1930s, he participated in reforms in the Ministry of Finance, in the writing of the 1933 Constitution, in the formation of the new civil code, of which he was in part the author, and in the construction of corporativism, which sought to control labor-management relations and other aspects of social engineering. In a regime largely directed by academics from the law faculties of Coimbra University and the University of Lisbon, Caetano was the leading expert on constitutional law, administrative law, political science, and colonial law. A prolific writer as both a political scientist and historian, Caetano was the author of the standard political science, administrative law, and history of law textbooks, works that remained in print and in use among students long after his exile and death.

   After his apprenticeship service in a number of ministries, Caetano rose steadily in the system. At age 38, he was named minister for the colonies (1944 47), and unlike many predecessors, he "went to see for himself" and made important research visits to Portugal's African territories. In 1955-58, Caetano served in the number-three position in the regime in the Ministry of the Presidency of the Council (premier's office); he left office for full-time academic work in part because of his disagreements with Salazar and others on regime policy and failures to reform at the desired pace. In 1956 and 1957, Caetano briefly served as interim minister of communications and of foreign affairs.

   Caetano's opportunity to take Salazar's place and to challenge even more conservative forces in the system came in the 1960s. Portugal's most prominent law professor had a public falling out with the regime in March 1962, when he resigned as rector of Lisbon University following a clash between rebellious students and the PIDE, the political police. When students opposing the regime organized strikes on the University of Lisbon campus, Caetano resigned his rectorship after the police invaded the campus and beat and arrested some students, without asking permission to enter university premises from university authorities.

   When Salazar became incapacitated in September 1968, President Américo Tomás named Caetano prime minister. His tasks were formidable: in the midst of remarkable economic growth in Portugal, continued heavy immigration of Portuguese to France and other countries, and the costly colonial wars in three African colonies, namely Angola, Guinea- Bissau, and Mozambique, the regime struggled to engineer essential social and political reforms, win the wars in Africa, and move toward meaningful political reforms. Caetano supported moderately important reforms in his first two years in office (1968-70), as well as the drafting of constitutional revisions in 1971 that allowed a slight liberalization of the Dictatorship, gave the opposition more room for activity, and decentrali zed authority in the overseas provinces (colonies). Always aware of the complexity of Portugal's colonial problems and of the ongoing wars, Caetano made several visits to Africa as premier, and he sought to implement reforms in social and economic affairs while maintaining the expensive, divisive military effort, Portugal's largest armed forces mobilization in her history.

   Opposed by intransigent right-wing forces in various sectors in both Portugal and Africa, Caetano's modest "opening" of 1968-70 soon narrowed. Conservative forces in the military, police, civil service, and private sectors opposed key political reforms, including greater democratization, while pursuing the military solution to the African crisis and personal wealth. A significant perspective on Caetano's failed program of reforms, which could not prevent the advent of a creeping revolution in society, is a key development in the 1961-74 era of colonial wars: despite Lisbon's efforts, the greater part of Portuguese emigration and capital investment during this period were directed not to the African colonies but to Europe, North America, and Brazil.

   Prime Minister Caetano, discouraged by events and by opposition to his reforms from the so-called "Rheumatic Brigade" of superannuated regime loyalists, attempted to resign his office, but President Américo Tomás convinced him to remain. The publication and public reception of African hero General Antônio Spinola's best-selling book Portugal e Futuro (Portugal and the Future) in February 1974 convinced the surprised Caetano that a coup and revolution were imminent. When the virtually bloodless, smoothly operating military coup was successful in what became known as the Revolution of 25 April 1974, Caetano surrendered to the Armed Forces Movement in Lisbon and was flown to Madeira Island and later to exile in Brazil, where he remained for the rest of his life. In his Brazilian exile, Caetano was active writing important memoirs and histories of the Estado Novo from his vantage point, teaching law at a private university in Rio de Janeiro, and carrying on a lively correspondence with persons in Portugal. He died at age 74, in 1980, in Brazil.

    See also Empire, Portuguese overseas.

Historical dictionary of Portugal > Caetano, Marcello José das Neves Alves
3 class

1. plural - classes; noun
1) (a group of people or things that are alike in some way: The dog won first prize in its class in the dog show.) clase

2) ((the system according to which people belong to) one of a number of economic/social groups: the upper class; the middle class; the working class; (also adjective) the class system.) clase

3) (a grade or rank (of merit): musicians of a high class.) clase

4) (a number of students or scholars taught together: John and I are in the same class.) clase

5) (a school lesson or college lecture etc: a French class.) clase

6) ((American) a course or series of lectures, often leading to an examination.) clase, lección

2. verb
(to regard as being of a certain type: He classes all women as stupid.) clasificar

- classmate
- class-room

class n clase

what class are you in? ¿en qué clase estás?

El plural de class se escribe classes

class

tr[klɑːs]

noun

1 (in society) clase nombre femenino

■ working/middle/upper class clase obrera/media/alta

2 SMALLEDUCATION/SMALL clase nombre femenino

■ we're in the same class estamos en la misma clase

■ I've got a history class tengo clase de historia

■ the class of '88 la promoción del 88

3 (kind) clase nombre femenino, tipo

■ he's not in the same class as Pele no está a la altura de Pele

4 (of plant, animal) clase nombre femenino

5 (style) clase nombre femenino, estilo

transitive verb

1 clasificar, catalogar

\

SMALLIDIOMATIC EXPRESSION/SMALL

to be in a class of its/one's own no tener igual, ser único,-a, ser inigualable

the class struggle la lucha de clases

class ['klæs] vt

: clasificar, catalogar

class n

1) kind, type: clase f, tipo m, especie f

2) : clase f, rango m social

the working class: la clase obrera

3) lesson: clase f, curso m

English class: clase de inglés

4) : conjunto m de estudiantes, clase f

the class of '97: la promoción del 97

class

n.

(§ pl.: classes) = categoría s.f.

• clase s.f.

• elegancia s.f.

• estado s.m.

• estofa s.f.

• grado s.m.

• género s.m.

• linaje s.m.

• línea s.f.

• rango s.m.

• tipo s.m.

v.

• clasificar v.

I klæs, klɑːs
noun

1) c u ( social stratum) clase f; (before n)

the class struggle — la lucha de clases

2) c ( group of students) clase f; ( lesson) clase f

the class of '86 — la promoción del 86

3) c (group, type) clase f

to be in a class of one's/its own — ser* único or inigualable

they're not in the same class as their opponents — no están a la altura de sus contrincantes

4) u

a) ( Transp) clase f

b) ( in UK) ( Post)

send the letter first/second class — manda la carta por correo preferente/normal

c) ( in UK) ( Educ) tipo de título que se concede según las calificaciones obtenidas durante la carrera y/o exámenes finales; (before n)

he got a first class degree — ≈se recibió con la nota más alta ( en AmL), ≈sacó matrícula de honor en la carrera ( en Esp)

5) u ( style) (colloq) clase f, estilo m

II

transitive verb catalogar*

[klɑːs]
1. N

1) (also Scol, Bio, Sociol) clase f

the class of 82 — la promoción del 82

ruling/middle/working class — clase f dirigente/media/obrera

first class — primera clase f

lower classes — clase fsing baja

upper class — clase f alta

2) (=category) categoría f

class of degree — (Brit) (Univ) tipo de título universitario según la nota con que se ha obtenido

a good class (of) novel — una novela de buena calidad

it's just not in the same class — no se puede comparar

in a class of one's own — sin par or igual

it's in a class by itself — no tiene par or igual, es único en su género

3) (=style)

to have class — tener clase

2.

VT clasificar

to class sb as sth — clasificar a algn de algo

3.

ADJ (=classy) [player, actor] de primera clase

4.

CPD

class action N — (Jur) querella f colectiva

class background N — (=social class) clase f social

class conflict N — conflicto m de clases

class differences NPL — diferencias fpl de clases

class distinction N — (Sociol) diferencia f de clase

class list N — (Scol) lista f de clase; (Univ) lista f de estudiantes aprobados para la licenciatura

class president N — (US) ≈ delegado(-a) m / f de clase

class society N — (Pol) sociedad f formada por clases

class struggle N — (Sociol) lucha f de clases

class system N — sistema m de clases sociales

class teacher N — (Brit) tutor(a) m / f

class war(fare) N — = class struggle

* * *

I [klæs, klɑːs]
noun

1) c u ( social stratum) clase f; (before n)

the class struggle — la lucha de clases

2) c ( group of students) clase f; ( lesson) clase f

the class of '86 — la promoción del 86

3) c (group, type) clase f

to be in a class of one's/its own — ser* único or inigualable

they're not in the same class as their opponents — no están a la altura de sus contrincantes

4) u

a) ( Transp) clase f

b) ( in UK) ( Post)

send the letter first/second class — manda la carta por correo preferente/normal

c) ( in UK) ( Educ) tipo de título que se concede según las calificaciones obtenidas durante la carrera y/o exámenes finales; (before n)

he got a first class degree — ≈se recibió con la nota más alta ( en AmL), ≈sacó matrícula de honor en la carrera ( en Esp)

5) u ( style) (colloq) clase f, estilo m

II

transitive verb catalogar*

English-spanish dictionary > class
4 SAC

1) Общая лексика: стратегическое военное командование (ВВС США)

2) Компьютерная техника: Singapore Apple Collaboration, Software Assigned Controller, Stand Alone Console, satellite access center

3) Американизм: School Aged Children, Small Agency Council, System Administrators Council

4) Спорт: Sports Advisory Committee

5) Военный термин: Scenario Aircraft Converter, School of Army Cooperation, Scientific Advisory Committee, Senate Appropriations Committee, Senior Advisory Council, Senior Aircraftman, Sense Alter Control, Shipbuilding Advisory Council, Standing Armaments Committee, Strike Air Command, Supreme Allied Command, Supreme Allied Commander, Survive And Continue, scene-of-action commander, secondary accountability center, secondary address code, security assistance, semiautomatic coding, service application code, signal analysis course, single address code, special agent in charge, special area code, special authorization card, standard aircraft characteristics, stock accounting center, strategic alert cadre, supply availability card, supporting arms coordinator, surface action commander, ВГК, Стратегическое авиационное командование, верховный главнокомандующий

6) Техника: satellite communications, sectional area curve, sequential arming circuit, systems automation corp.

7) Шутливое выражение: Seriously Amusing Cat

8) Химия: Strong Acid Cation

9) Математика: Symbolic and Algebraic Computation

10) Религия: Student Ambassadors for Christ, Submitting All To Christ

11) Метеорология: Surface Air Consumption

12) Бухгалтерия: Same As Cash

13) Ветеринария: Scottish Agricultural Colleges

14) Грубое выражение: Sorry Ass Clan

15) Телекоммуникации: Subscriber Acquisition Cost, Single Attachment Concentrator (FDDI), (subscribor aquisition cost) стоимость приобретения одного абонента, затраты на приобретение одного абонента (subscriber acquisition costs)

16) Сокращение: Scene of Action Commander, Self-Adaptive Channelizer (UK), Senate Appropriations Committee (USA), Senior Aircraftsman, Shaanxi Aircraft Co. (China), Shenyang Aircraft Corp. (China), Small Arms Collimator, Space Activities Commission, Special Advisory Committee, Strategic Air Command (USA), Systems Acquisition Career (USA), sprayed acoustical ceiling, Special Area Code (represent services, not places)

17) Университет: Scottish Agricultural College, Social Activities Club, Student Action Committee, Student Activities Committee, Student Activities Council, Student Activity Center, Student Assignment Center, Students Administrative Council, Summer Arts Center

18) Физиология: Sacral

19) Электроника: Smoothed Active Contour

20) Вычислительная техника: Service / Special Area Code, Special Area Code (Telephony, represent services, not places), Strategic Air Command (US military), Strict Avalanche Criterion (Verschluesselung)

21) Иммунология: splenic accessory cells, splenic adherent cells

22) Космонавтика: Space Applications Centre (Ahmedabad, India), Space Activities Commission (Japan)

23) Фирменный знак: Shapley Ames Catalog

24) Экология: КНК, Консультативный научный комитет

25) Деловая лексика: Superintendents Advisory Council

26) Образование: Scholastic Achievement Council, School Adventure Club, School Advisory Committee, School Advisory Council, School Assessed Coursework, Sense Alter And Control, Standards Aligned Classroom, Student Activity Club, Student Activity Council, Students Activities Council, Students Against Corruption

27) Сетевые технологии: Session Admission Control, концентратор с одинарным подключением

28) Океанография: Seismic Analysis Code, Special Analysis Center

29) Химическое оружие: Science Advisory Council

30) Почвоведение: почвенный поглощающий комплекс

31) Безопасность: Secure Authenticated Communication, Security Access Console, Slovak Antivirus Center

32) Расширение файла: Single Attachment Concentrator

33) Военно-политический термин: Strategic Air Command

34) Электротехника: solid aluminum conductor

35) Общественная организация: Salvation Army Corps, Student Advocacy Center

36) Должность: Social Action Coordinator, Society And Culture

37) Аэропорты: Sacramento Executive Airport, Sacramento, California USA

38) Программное обеспечение: Simple Api For Css

39) Музеи: Sussex Archaeological Collections

Универсальный англо-русский словарь > SAC
5 sac

1) Общая лексика: стратегическое военное командование (ВВС США)

2) Компьютерная техника: Singapore Apple Collaboration, Software Assigned Controller, Stand Alone Console, satellite access center

3) Американизм: School Aged Children, Small Agency Council, System Administrators Council

4) Спорт: Sports Advisory Committee

5) Военный термин: Scenario Aircraft Converter, School of Army Cooperation, Scientific Advisory Committee, Senate Appropriations Committee, Senior Advisory Council, Senior Aircraftman, Sense Alter Control, Shipbuilding Advisory Council, Standing Armaments Committee, Strike Air Command, Supreme Allied Command, Supreme Allied Commander, Survive And Continue, scene-of-action commander, secondary accountability center, secondary address code, security assistance, semiautomatic coding, service application code, signal analysis course, single address code, special agent in charge, special area code, special authorization card, standard aircraft characteristics, stock accounting center, strategic alert cadre, supply availability card, supporting arms coordinator, surface action commander, ВГК, Стратегическое авиационное командование, верховный главнокомандующий

6) Техника: satellite communications, sectional area curve, sequential arming circuit, systems automation corp.

7) Шутливое выражение: Seriously Amusing Cat

8) Химия: Strong Acid Cation

9) Математика: Symbolic and Algebraic Computation

10) Религия: Student Ambassadors for Christ, Submitting All To Christ

11) Метеорология: Surface Air Consumption

12) Бухгалтерия: Same As Cash

13) Ветеринария: Scottish Agricultural Colleges

14) Грубое выражение: Sorry Ass Clan

15) Телекоммуникации: Subscriber Acquisition Cost, Single Attachment Concentrator (FDDI), (subscribor aquisition cost) стоимость приобретения одного абонента, затраты на приобретение одного абонента (subscriber acquisition costs)

16) Сокращение: Scene of Action Commander, Self-Adaptive Channelizer (UK), Senate Appropriations Committee (USA), Senior Aircraftsman, Shaanxi Aircraft Co. (China), Shenyang Aircraft Corp. (China), Small Arms Collimator, Space Activities Commission, Special Advisory Committee, Strategic Air Command (USA), Systems Acquisition Career (USA), sprayed acoustical ceiling, Special Area Code (represent services, not places)

17) Университет: Scottish Agricultural College, Social Activities Club, Student Action Committee, Student Activities Committee, Student Activities Council, Student Activity Center, Student Assignment Center, Students Administrative Council, Summer Arts Center

18) Физиология: Sacral

19) Электроника: Smoothed Active Contour

20) Вычислительная техника: Service / Special Area Code, Special Area Code (Telephony, represent services, not places), Strategic Air Command (US military), Strict Avalanche Criterion (Verschluesselung)

21) Иммунология: splenic accessory cells, splenic adherent cells

22) Космонавтика: Space Applications Centre (Ahmedabad, India), Space Activities Commission (Japan)

23) Фирменный знак: Shapley Ames Catalog

24) Экология: КНК, Консультативный научный комитет

25) Деловая лексика: Superintendents Advisory Council

26) Образование: Scholastic Achievement Council, School Adventure Club, School Advisory Committee, School Advisory Council, School Assessed Coursework, Sense Alter And Control, Standards Aligned Classroom, Student Activity Club, Student Activity Council, Students Activities Council, Students Against Corruption

27) Сетевые технологии: Session Admission Control, концентратор с одинарным подключением

28) Океанография: Seismic Analysis Code, Special Analysis Center

29) Химическое оружие: Science Advisory Council

30) Почвоведение: почвенный поглощающий комплекс

31) Безопасность: Secure Authenticated Communication, Security Access Console, Slovak Antivirus Center

32) Расширение файла: Single Attachment Concentrator

33) Военно-политический термин: Strategic Air Command

34) Электротехника: solid aluminum conductor

35) Общественная организация: Salvation Army Corps, Student Advocacy Center

36) Должность: Social Action Coordinator, Society And Culture

37) Аэропорты: Sacramento Executive Airport, Sacramento, California USA

38) Программное обеспечение: Simple Api For Css

39) Музеи: Sussex Archaeological Collections

Универсальный англо-русский словарь > sac
6 Historical Portugal

   Before Romans described western Iberia or Hispania as "Lusitania," ancient Iberians inhabited the land. Phoenician and Greek trading settlements grew up in the Tagus estuary area and nearby coasts. Beginning around 202 BCE, Romans invaded what is today southern Portugal. With Rome's defeat of Carthage, Romans proceeded to conquer and rule the western region north of the Tagus, which they named Roman "Lusitania." In the fourth century CE, as Rome's rule weakened, the area experienced yet another invasion—Germanic tribes, principally the Suevi, who eventually were Christianized. During the sixth century CE, the Suevi kingdom was superseded by yet another Germanic tribe—the Christian Visigoths.

   A major turning point in Portugal's history came in 711, as Muslim armies from North Africa, consisting of both Arab and Berber elements, invaded the Iberian Peninsula from across the Straits of Gibraltar. They entered what is now Portugal in 714, and proceeded to conquer most of the country except for the far north. For the next half a millennium, Islam and Muslim presence in Portugal left a significant mark upon the politics, government, language, and culture of the country.

   Islam, Reconquest, and Portugal Created, 714-1140

   The long frontier struggle between Muslim invaders and Christian communities in the north of the Iberian peninsula was called the Reconquista (Reconquest). It was during this struggle that the first dynasty of Portuguese kings (Burgundian) emerged and the independent monarchy of Portugal was established. Christian forces moved south from what is now the extreme north of Portugal and gradually defeated Muslim forces, besieging and capturing towns under Muslim sway. In the ninth century, as Christian forces slowly made their way southward, Christian elements were dominant only in the area between Minho province and the Douro River; this region became known as "territorium Portu-calense."

   In the 11th century, the advance of the Reconquest quickened as local Christian armies were reinforced by crusading knights from what is now France and England. Christian forces took Montemor (1034), at the Mondego River; Lamego (1058); Viseu (1058); and Coimbra (1064). In 1095, the king of Castile and Léon granted the country of "Portu-cale," what became northern Portugal, to a Burgundian count who had emigrated from France. This was the foundation of Portugal. In 1139, a descendant of this count, Afonso Henriques, proclaimed himself "King of Portugal." He was Portugal's first monarch, the "Founder," and the first of the Burgundian dynasty, which ruled until 1385.

   The emergence of Portugal in the 12th century as a separate monarchy in Iberia occurred before the Christian Reconquest of the peninsula. In the 1140s, the pope in Rome recognized Afonso Henriques as king of Portugal. In 1147, after a long, bloody siege, Muslim-occupied Lisbon fell to Afonso Henriques's army. Lisbon was the greatest prize of the 500-year war. Assisting this effort were English crusaders on their way to the Holy Land; the first bishop of Lisbon was an Englishman. When the Portuguese captured Faro and Silves in the Algarve province in 1248-50, the Reconquest of the extreme western portion of the Iberian peninsula was complete—significantly, more than two centuries before the Spanish crown completed the Reconquest of the eastern portion by capturing Granada in 1492.

   Consolidation and Independence of Burgundian Portugal, 1140-1385

   Two main themes of Portugal's early existence as a monarchy are the consolidation of control over the realm and the defeat of a Castil-ian threat from the east to its independence. At the end of this period came the birth of a new royal dynasty (Aviz), which prepared to carry the Christian Reconquest beyond continental Portugal across the straits of Gibraltar to North Africa. There was a variety of motives behind these developments. Portugal's independent existence was imperiled by threats from neighboring Iberian kingdoms to the north and east. Politics were dominated not only by efforts against the Muslims in

   Portugal (until 1250) and in nearby southern Spain (until 1492), but also by internecine warfare among the kingdoms of Castile, Léon, Aragon, and Portugal. A final comeback of Muslim forces was defeated at the battle of Salado (1340) by allied Castilian and Portuguese forces. In the emerging Kingdom of Portugal, the monarch gradually gained power over and neutralized the nobility and the Church.

   The historic and commonplace Portuguese saying "From Spain, neither a good wind nor a good marriage" was literally played out in diplomacy and war in the late 14th-century struggles for mastery in the peninsula. Larger, more populous Castile was pitted against smaller Portugal. Castile's Juan I intended to force a union between Castile and Portugal during this era of confusion and conflict. In late 1383, Portugal's King Fernando, the last king of the Burgundian dynasty, suddenly died prematurely at age 38, and the Master of Aviz, Portugal's most powerful nobleman, took up the cause of independence and resistance against Castile's invasion. The Master of Aviz, who became King João I of Portugal, was able to obtain foreign assistance. With the aid of English archers, Joao's armies defeated the Castilians in the crucial battle of Aljubarrota, on 14 August 1385, a victory that assured the independence of the Portuguese monarchy from its Castilian nemesis for several centuries.

   Aviz Dynasty and Portugal's First Overseas Empire, 1385-1580

   The results of the victory at Aljubarrota, much celebrated in Portugal's art and monuments, and the rise of the Aviz dynasty also helped to establish a new merchant class in Lisbon and Oporto, Portugal's second city. This group supported King João I's program of carrying the Reconquest to North Africa, since it was interested in expanding Portugal's foreign commerce and tapping into Muslim trade routes and resources in Africa. With the Reconquest against the Muslims completed in Portugal and the threat from Castile thwarted for the moment, the Aviz dynasty launched an era of overseas conquest, exploration, and trade. These efforts dominated Portugal's 15th and 16th centuries.

   The overseas empire and age of Discoveries began with Portugal's bold conquest in 1415 of the Moroccan city of Ceuta. One royal member of the 1415 expedition was young, 21-year-old Prince Henry, later known in history as "Prince Henry the Navigator." His part in the capture of Ceuta won Henry his knighthood and began Portugal's "Marvelous Century," during which the small kingdom was counted as a European and world power of consequence. Henry was the son of King João I and his English queen, Philippa of Lancaster, but he did not inherit the throne. Instead, he spent most of his life and his fortune, and that of the wealthy military Order of Christ, on various imperial ventures and on voyages of exploration down the African coast and into the Atlantic. While mythology has surrounded Henry's controversial role in the Discoveries, and this role has been exaggerated, there is no doubt that he played a vital part in the initiation of Portugal's first overseas empire and in encouraging exploration. He was naturally curious, had a sense of mission for Portugal, and was a strong leader. He also had wealth to expend; at least a third of the African voyages of the time were under his sponsorship. If Prince Henry himself knew little science, significant scientific advances in navigation were made in his day.

   What were Portugal's motives for this new imperial effort? The well-worn historical cliche of "God, Glory, and Gold" can only partly explain the motivation of a small kingdom with few natural resources and barely 1 million people, which was greatly outnumbered by the other powers it confronted. Among Portuguese objectives were the desire to exploit known North African trade routes and resources (gold, wheat, leather, weaponry, and other goods that were scarce in Iberia); the need to outflank the Muslim world in the Mediterranean by sailing around Africa, attacking Muslims en route; and the wish to ally with Christian kingdoms beyond Africa. This enterprise also involved a strategy of breaking the Venetian spice monopoly by trading directly with the East by means of discovering and exploiting a sea route around Africa to Asia. Besides the commercial motives, Portugal nurtured a strong crusading sense of Christian mission, and various classes in the kingdom saw an opportunity for fame and gain.

   By the time of Prince Henry's death in 1460, Portugal had gained control of the Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and Madeiras, begun to colonize the Cape Verde Islands, failed to conquer the Canary Islands from Castile, captured various cities on Morocco's coast, and explored as far as Senegal, West Africa, down the African coast. By 1488, Bar-tolomeu Dias had rounded the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa and thereby discovered the way to the Indian Ocean.

   Portugal's largely coastal African empire and later its fragile Asian empire brought unexpected wealth but were purchased at a high price. Costs included wars of conquest and defense against rival powers, manning the far-flung navel and trade fleets and scattered castle-fortresses, and staffing its small but fierce armies, all of which entailed a loss of skills and population to maintain a scattered empire. Always short of capital, the monarchy became indebted to bankers. There were many defeats beginning in the 16th century at the hands of the larger imperial European monarchies (Spain, France, England, and Holland) and many attacks on Portugal and its strung-out empire. Typically, there was also the conflict that arose when a tenuously held world empire that rarely if ever paid its way demanded finance and manpower Portugal itself lacked.

   The first 80 years of the glorious imperial era, the golden age of Portugal's imperial power and world influence, was an African phase. During 1415-88, Portuguese navigators and explorers in small ships, some of them caravelas (caravels), explored the treacherous, disease-ridden coasts of Africa from Morocco to South Africa beyond the Cape of Good Hope. By the 1470s, the Portuguese had reached the Gulf of Guinea and, in the early 1480s, what is now Angola. Bartolomeu Dias's extraordinary voyage of 1487-88 to South Africa's coast and the edge of the Indian Ocean convinced Portugal that the best route to Asia's spices and Christians lay south, around the tip of southern Africa. Between 1488 and 1495, there was a hiatus caused in part by domestic conflict in Portugal, discussion of resources available for further conquests beyond Africa in Asia, and serious questions as to Portugal's capacity to reach beyond Africa. In 1495, King Manuel and his council decided to strike for Asia, whatever the consequences. In 1497-99, Vasco da Gama, under royal orders, made the epic two-year voyage that discovered the sea route to western India (Asia), outflanked Islam and Venice, and began Portugal's Asian empire. Within 50 years, Portugal had discovered and begun the exploitation of its largest colony, Brazil, and set up forts and trading posts from the Middle East (Aden and Ormuz), India (Calicut, Goa, etc.), Malacca, and Indonesia to Macau in China.

   By the 1550s, parts of its largely coastal, maritime trading post empire from Morocco to the Moluccas were under siege from various hostile forces, including Muslims, Christians, and Hindi. Although Moroccan forces expelled the Portuguese from the major coastal cities by 1550, the rival European monarchies of Castile (Spain), England, France, and later Holland began to seize portions of her undermanned, outgunned maritime empire.

   In 1580, Phillip II of Spain, whose mother was a Portuguese princess and who had a strong claim to the Portuguese throne, invaded Portugal, claimed the throne, and assumed control over the realm and, by extension, its African, Asian, and American empires. Phillip II filled the power vacuum that appeared in Portugal following the loss of most of Portugal's army and its young, headstrong King Sebastião in a disastrous war in Morocco. Sebastiao's death in battle (1578) and the lack of a natural heir to succeed him, as well as the weak leadership of the cardinal who briefly assumed control in Lisbon, led to a crisis that Spain's strong monarch exploited. As a result, Portugal lost its independence to Spain for a period of 60 years.

   Portugal under Spanish Rule, 1580-1640

   Despite the disastrous nature of Portugal's experience under Spanish rule, "The Babylonian Captivity" gave birth to modern Portuguese nationalism, its second overseas empire, and its modern alliance system with England. Although Spain allowed Portugal's weakened empire some autonomy, Spanish rule in Portugal became increasingly burdensome and unacceptable. Spain's ambitious imperial efforts in Europe and overseas had an impact on the Portuguese as Spain made greater and greater demands on its smaller neighbor for manpower and money. Portugal's culture underwent a controversial Castilianization, while its empire became hostage to Spain's fortunes. New rival powers England, France, and Holland attacked and took parts of Spain's empire and at the same time attacked Portugal's empire, as well as the mother country.

   Portugal's empire bore the consequences of being attacked by Spain's bitter enemies in what was a form of world war. Portuguese losses were heavy. By 1640, Portugal had lost most of its Moroccan cities as well as Ceylon, the Moluccas, and sections of India. With this, Portugal's Asian empire was gravely weakened. Only Goa, Damão, Diu, Bombay, Timor, and Macau remained and, in Brazil, Dutch forces occupied the northeast.

   On 1 December 1640, long commemorated as a national holiday, Portuguese rebels led by the duke of Braganza overthrew Spanish domination and took advantage of Spanish weakness following a more serious rebellion in Catalonia. Portugal regained independence from Spain, but at a price: dependence on foreign assistance to maintain its independence in the form of the renewal of the alliance with England.

   Restoration and Second Empire, 1640-1822

   Foreign affairs and empire dominated the restoration era and aftermath, and Portugal again briefly enjoyed greater European power and prestige. The Anglo-Portuguese Alliance was renewed and strengthened in treaties of 1642, 1654, and 1661, and Portugal's independence from Spain was underwritten by English pledges and armed assistance. In a Luso-Spanish treaty of 1668, Spain recognized Portugal's independence. Portugal's alliance with England was a marriage of convenience and necessity between two monarchies with important religious, cultural, and social differences. In return for legal, diplomatic, and trade privileges, as well as the use during war and peace of Portugal's great Lisbon harbor and colonial ports for England's navy, England pledged to protect Portugal and its scattered empire from any attack. The previously cited 17th-century alliance treaties were renewed later in the Treaty of Windsor, signed in London in 1899. On at least 10 different occasions after 1640, and during the next two centuries, England was central in helping prevent or repel foreign invasions of its ally, Portugal.

   Portugal's second empire (1640-1822) was largely Brazil-oriented. Portuguese colonization, exploitation of wealth, and emigration focused on Portuguese America, and imperial revenues came chiefly from Brazil. Between 1670 and 1740, Portugal's royalty and nobility grew wealthier on funds derived from Brazilian gold, diamonds, sugar, tobacco, and other crops, an enterprise supported by the Atlantic slave trade and the supply of African slave labor from West Africa and Angola. Visitors today can see where much of that wealth was invested: Portugal's rich legacy of monumental architecture. Meanwhile, the African slave trade took a toll in Angola and West Africa.

   In continental Portugal, absolutist monarchy dominated politics and government, and there was a struggle for position and power between the monarchy and other institutions, such as the Church and nobility. King José I's chief minister, usually known in history as the marquis of Pombal (ruled 1750-77), sharply suppressed the nobility and the

   Church (including the Inquisition, now a weak institution) and expelled the Jesuits. Pombal also made an effort to reduce economic dependence on England, Portugal's oldest ally. But his successes did not last much beyond his disputed time in office.

   Beginning in the late 18th century, the European-wide impact of the French Revolution and the rise of Napoleon placed Portugal in a vulnerable position. With the monarchy ineffectively led by an insane queen (Maria I) and her indecisive regent son (João VI), Portugal again became the focus of foreign ambition and aggression. With England unable to provide decisive assistance in time, France—with Spain's consent—invaded Portugal in 1807. As Napoleon's army under General Junot entered Lisbon meeting no resistance, Portugal's royal family fled on a British fleet to Brazil, where it remained in exile until 1821. In the meantime, Portugal's overseas empire was again under threat. There was a power vacuum as the monarch was absent, foreign armies were present, and new political notions of liberalism and constitutional monarchy were exciting various groups of citizens.

   Again England came to the rescue, this time in the form of the armies of the duke of Wellington. Three successive French invasions of Portugal were defeated and expelled, and Wellington succeeded in carrying the war against Napoleon across the Portuguese frontier into Spain. The presence of the English army, the new French-born liberal ideas, and the political vacuum combined to create revolutionary conditions. The French invasions and the peninsular wars, where Portuguese armed forces played a key role, marked the beginning of a new era in politics.

   Liberalism and Constitutional Monarchy, 1822-1910

   During 1807-22, foreign invasions, war, and civil strife over conflicting political ideas gravely damaged Portugal's commerce, economy, and novice industry. The next terrible blow was the loss of Brazil in 1822, the jewel in the imperial crown. Portugal's very independence seemed to be at risk. In vain, Portugal sought to resist Brazilian independence by force, but in 1825 it formally acknowledged Brazilian independence by treaty.

   Portugal's slow recovery from the destructive French invasions and the "war of independence" was complicated by civil strife over the form of constitutional monarchy that best suited Portugal. After struggles over these issues between 1820 and 1834, Portugal settled somewhat uncertainly into a moderate constitutional monarchy whose constitution (Charter of 1826) lent it strong political powers to exert a moderating influence between the executive and legislative branches of the government. It also featured a new upper middle class based on land ownership and commerce; a Catholic Church that, although still important, lived with reduced privileges and property; a largely African (third) empire to which Lisbon and Oporto devoted increasing spiritual and material resources, starting with the liberal imperial plans of 1836 and 1851, and continuing with the work of institutions like the Lisbon Society of Geography (established 1875); and a mass of rural peasants whose bonds to the land weakened after 1850 and who began to immigrate in increasing numbers to Brazil and North America.

   Chronic military intervention in national politics began in 19th-century Portugal. Such intervention, usually commencing with coups or pronunciamentos (military revolts), was a shortcut to the spoils of political office and could reflect popular discontent as well as the power of personalities. An early example of this was the 1817 golpe (coup) attempt of General Gomes Freire against British military rule in Portugal before the return of King João VI from Brazil. Except for a more stable period from 1851 to 1880, military intervention in politics, or the threat thereof, became a feature of the constitutional monarchy's political life, and it continued into the First Republic and the subsequent Estado Novo.

   Beginning with the Regeneration period (1851-80), Portugal experienced greater political stability and economic progress. Military intervention in politics virtually ceased; industrialization and construction of railroads, roads, and bridges proceeded; two political parties (Regenerators and Historicals) worked out a system of rotation in power; and leading intellectuals sparked a cultural revival in several fields. In 19th-century literature, there was a new golden age led by such figures as Alexandre Herculano (historian), Eça de Queirós (novelist), Almeida Garrett (playwright and essayist), Antero de Quental (poet), and Joaquim Oliveira Martins (historian and social scientist). In its third overseas empire, Portugal attempted to replace the slave trade and slavery with legitimate economic activities; to reform the administration; and to expand Portuguese holdings beyond coastal footholds deep into the African hinterlands in West, West Central, and East Africa. After 1841, to some extent, and especially after 1870, colonial affairs, combined with intense nationalism, pressures for economic profit in Africa, sentiment for national revival, and the drift of European affairs would make or break Lisbon governments.

   Beginning with the political crisis that arose out of the "English Ultimatum" affair of January 1890, the monarchy became discredtted and identified with the poorly functioning government, political parties splintered, and republicanism found more supporters. Portugal participated in the "Scramble for Africa," expanding its African holdings, but failed to annex territory connecting Angola and Mozambique. A growing foreign debt and state bankruptcy as of the early 1890s damaged the constitutional monarchy's reputation, despite the efforts of King Carlos in diplomacy, the renewal of the alliance in the Windsor Treaty of 1899, and the successful if bloody colonial wars in the empire (1880-97). Republicanism proclaimed that Portugal's weak economy and poor society were due to two historic institutions: the monarchy and the Catholic Church. A republic, its stalwarts claimed, would bring greater individual liberty; efficient, if more decentralized government; and a stronger colonial program while stripping the Church of its role in both society and education.

   As the monarchy lost support and republicans became more aggressive, violence increased in politics. King Carlos I and his heir Luís were murdered in Lisbon by anarchist-republicans on 1 February 1908. Following a military and civil insurrection and fighting between monarchist and republican forces, on 5 October 1910, King Manuel II fled Portugal and a republic was proclaimed.

   First Parliamentary Republic, 1910-26

   Portugal's first attempt at republican government was the most unstable, turbulent parliamentary republic in the history of 20th-century Western Europe. During a little under 16 years of the republic, there were 45 governments, a number of legislatures that did not complete normal terms, military coups, and only one president who completed his four-year term in office. Portuguese society was poorly prepared for this political experiment. Among the deadly legacies of the monarchy were a huge public debt; a largely rural, apolitical, and illiterate peasant population; conflict over the causes of the country's misfortunes; and lack of experience with a pluralist, democratic system.

   The republic had some talented leadership but lacked popular, institutional, and economic support. The 1911 republican constitution established only a limited democracy, as only a small portion of the adult male citizenry was eligible to vote. In a country where the majority was Catholic, the republic passed harshly anticlerical laws, and its institutions and supporters persecuted both the Church and its adherents. During its brief disjointed life, the First Republic drafted important reform plans in economic, social, and educational affairs; actively promoted development in the empire; and pursued a liberal, generous foreign policy. Following British requests for Portugal's assistance in World War I, Portugal entered the war on the Allied side in March 1916 and sent armies to Flanders and Portuguese Africa. Portugal's intervention in that conflict, however, was too costly in many respects, and the ultimate failure of the republic in part may be ascribed to Portugal's World War I activities.

   Unfortunately for the republic, its time coincided with new threats to Portugal's African possessions: World War I, social and political demands from various classes that could not be reconciled, excessive military intervention in politics, and, in particular, the worst economic and financial crisis Portugal had experienced since the 16th and 17th centuries. After the original Portuguese Republican Party (PRP, also known as the "Democrats") splintered into three warring groups in 1912, no true multiparty system emerged. The Democrats, except for only one or two elections, held an iron monopoly of electoral power, and political corruption became a major issue. As extreme right-wing dictatorships elsewhere in Europe began to take power in Italy (1922), neighboring Spain (1923), and Greece (1925), what scant popular support remained for the republic collapsed. Backed by a right-wing coalition of landowners from Alentejo, clergy, Coimbra University faculty and students, Catholic organizations, and big business, career military officers led by General Gomes da Costa executed a coup on 28 May 1926, turned out the last republican government, and established a military government.

   The Estado Novo (New State), 1926-74

   During the military phase (1926-32) of the Estado Novo, professional military officers, largely from the army, governed and administered Portugal and held key cabinet posts, but soon discovered that the military possessed no magic formula that could readily solve the problems inherited from the First Republic. Especially during the years 1926-31, the military dictatorship, even with its political repression of republican activities and institutions (military censorship of the press, political police action, and closure of the republic's rowdy parliament), was characterized by similar weaknesses: personalism and factionalism; military coups and political instability, including civil strife and loss of life; state debt and bankruptcy; and a weak economy. "Barracks parliamentarism" was not an acceptable alternative even to the "Nightmare Republic."

   Led by General Óscar Carmona, who had replaced and sent into exile General Gomes da Costa, the military dictatorship turned to a civilian expert in finance and economics to break the budget impasse and bring coherence to the disorganized system. Appointed minister of finance on 27 April 1928, the Coimbra University Law School professor of economics Antônio de Oliveira Salazar (1889-1970) first reformed finance, helped balance the budget, and then turned to other concerns as he garnered extraordinary governing powers. In 1930, he was appointed interim head of another key ministry (Colonies) and within a few years had become, in effect, a civilian dictator who, with the military hierarchy's support, provided the government with coherence, a program, and a set of policies.

   For nearly 40 years after he was appointed the first civilian prime minister in 1932, Salazar's personality dominated the government. Unlike extreme right-wing dictators elsewhere in Europe, Salazar was directly appointed by the army but was never endorsed by a popular political party, street militia, or voter base. The scholarly, reclusive former Coimbra University professor built up what became known after 1932 as the Estado Novo ("New State"), which at the time of its overthrow by another military coup in 1974, was the longest surviving authoritarian regime in Western Europe. The system of Salazar and the largely academic and technocratic ruling group he gathered in his cabinets was based on the central bureaucracy of the state, which was supported by the president of the republic—always a senior career military officer, General Óscar Carmona (1928-51), General Craveiro Lopes (1951-58), and Admiral Américo Tómaz (1958-74)—and the complicity of various institutions. These included a rubber-stamp legislature called the National Assembly (1935-74) and a political police known under various names: PVDE (1932-45), PIDE (1945-69),

   and DGS (1969-74). Other defenders of the Estado Novo security were paramilitary organizations such as the National Republican Guard (GNR); the Portuguese Legion (PL); and the Portuguese Youth [Movement]. In addition to censorship of the media, theater, and books, there was political repression and a deliberate policy of depoliticization. All political parties except for the approved movement of regime loyalists, the União Nacional or (National Union), were banned.

   The most vigorous and more popular period of the New State was 1932-44, when the basic structures were established. Never monolithic or entirely the work of one person (Salazar), the New State was constructed with the assistance of several dozen top associates who were mainly academics from law schools, some technocrats with specialized skills, and a handful of trusted career military officers. The 1933 Constitution declared Portugal to be a "unitary, corporative Republic," and pressures to restore the monarchy were resisted. Although some of the regime's followers were fascists and pseudofascists, many more were conservative Catholics, integralists, nationalists, and monarchists of different varieties, and even some reactionary republicans. If the New State was authoritarian, it was not totalitarian and, unlike fascism in Benito Mussolini's Italy or Adolf Hitler's Germany, it usually employed the minimum of violence necessary to defeat what remained a largely fractious, incoherent opposition.

   With the tumultuous Second Republic and the subsequent civil war in nearby Spain, the regime felt threatened and reinforced its defenses. During what Salazar rightly perceived as a time of foreign policy crisis for Portugal (1936-45), he assumed control of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. From there, he pursued four basic foreign policy objectives: supporting the Nationalist rebels of General Francisco Franco in the Spanish Civil War (1936-39) and concluding defense treaties with a triumphant Franco; ensuring that General Franco in an exhausted Spain did not enter World War II on the Axis side; maintaining Portuguese neutrality in World War II with a post-1942 tilt toward the Allies, including granting Britain and the United States use of bases in the Azores Islands; and preserving and protecting Portugal's Atlantic Islands and its extensive, if poor, overseas empire in Africa and Asia.

   During the middle years of the New State (1944-58), many key Salazar associates in government either died or resigned, and there was greater social unrest in the form of unprecedented strikes and clandestine Communist activities, intensified opposition, and new threatening international pressures on Portugal's overseas empire. During the earlier phase of the Cold War (1947-60), Portugal became a steadfast, if weak, member of the US-dominated North Atlantic Treaty Organization alliance and, in 1955, with American support, Portugal joined the United Nations (UN). Colonial affairs remained a central concern of the regime. As of 1939, Portugal was the third largest colonial power in the world and possessed territories in tropical Africa (Angola, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau, and São Tomé and Príncipe Islands) and the remnants of its 16th-century empire in Asia (Goa, Damão, Diu, East Timor, and Macau). Beginning in the early 1950s, following the independence of India in 1947, Portugal resisted Indian pressures to decolonize Portuguese India and used police forces to discourage internal opposition in its Asian and African colonies.

   The later years of the New State (1958-68) witnessed the aging of the increasingly isolated but feared Salazar and new threats both at home and overseas. Although the regime easily overcame the brief oppositionist threat from rival presidential candidate General Humberto Delgado in the spring of 1958, new developments in the African and Asian empires imperiled the authoritarian system. In February 1961, oppositionists hijacked the Portuguese ocean liner Santa Maria and, in following weeks, African insurgents in northern Angola, although they failed to expel the Portuguese, gained worldwide media attention, discredited the New State, and began the 13-year colonial war. After thwarting a dissident military coup against his continued leadership, Salazar and his ruling group mobilized military repression in Angola and attempted to develop the African colonies at a faster pace in order to ensure Portuguese control. Meanwhile, the other European colonial powers (Britain, France, Belgium, and Spain) rapidly granted political independence to their African territories.

   At the time of Salazar's removal from power in September 1968, following a stroke, Portugal's efforts to maintain control over its colonies appeared to be successful. President Americo Tomás appointed Dr. Marcello Caetano as Salazar's successor as prime minister. While maintaining the New State's basic structures, and continuing the regime's essential colonial policy, Caetano attempted wider reforms in colonial administration and some devolution of power from Lisbon, as well as more freedom of expression in Lisbon. Still, a great deal of the budget was devoted to supporting the wars against the insurgencies in Africa. Meanwhile in Asia, Portuguese India had fallen when the Indian army invaded in December 1961. The loss of Goa was a psychological blow to the leadership of the New State, and of the Asian empire only East Timor and Macau remained.

   The Caetano years (1968-74) were but a hiatus between the waning Salazar era and a new regime. There was greater political freedom and rapid economic growth (5-6 percent annually to late 1973), but Caetano's government was unable to reform the old system thoroughly and refused to consider new methods either at home or in the empire. In the end, regime change came from junior officers of the professional military who organized the Armed Forces Movement (MFA) against the Caetano government. It was this group of several hundred officers, mainly in the army and navy, which engineered a largely bloodless coup in Lisbon on 25 April 1974. Their unexpected action brought down the 48-year-old New State and made possible the eventual establishment and consolidation of democratic governance in Portugal, as well as a reorientation of the country away from the Atlantic toward Europe.

   Revolution of Carnations, 1974-76

   Following successful military operations of the Armed Forces Movement against the Caetano government, Portugal experienced what became known as the "Revolution of Carnations." It so happened that during the rainy week of the military golpe, Lisbon flower shops were featuring carnations, and the revolutionaries and their supporters adopted the red carnation as the common symbol of the event, as well as of the new freedom from dictatorship. The MFA, whose leaders at first were mostly little-known majors and captains, proclaimed a three-fold program of change for the new Portugal: democracy; decolonization of the overseas empire, after ending the colonial wars; and developing a backward economy in the spirit of opportunity and equality. During the first 24 months after the coup, there was civil strife, some anarchy, and a power struggle. With the passing of the Estado Novo, public euphoria burst forth as the new provisional military government proclaimed the freedoms of speech, press, and assembly, and abolished censorship, the political police, the Portuguese Legion, Portuguese Youth, and other New State organizations, including the National Union. Scores of political parties were born and joined the senior political party, the Portuguese Community Party (PCP), and the Socialist Party (PS), founded shortly before the coup.

   Portugal's Revolution of Carnations went through several phases. There was an attempt to take control by radical leftists, including the PCP and its allies. This was thwarted by moderate officers in the army, as well as by the efforts of two political parties: the PS and the Social Democrats (PPD, later PSD). The first phase was from April to September 1974. Provisional president General Antonio Spínola, whose 1974 book Portugal and the Future had helped prepare public opinion for the coup, met irresistible leftist pressures. After Spinola's efforts to avoid rapid decolonization of the African empire failed, he resigned in September 1974. During the second phase, from September 1974 to March 1975, radical military officers gained control, but a coup attempt by General Spínola and his supporters in Lisbon in March 1975 failed and Spínola fled to Spain.

   In the third phase of the Revolution, March-November 1975, a strong leftist reaction followed. Farm workers occupied and "nationalized" 1.1 million hectares of farmland in the Alentejo province, and radical military officers in the provisional government ordered the nationalization of Portuguese banks (foreign banks were exempted), utilities, and major industries, or about 60 percent of the economic system. There were power struggles among various political parties — a total of 50 emerged—and in the streets there was civil strife among labor, military, and law enforcement groups. A constituent assembly, elected on 25 April 1975, in Portugal's first free elections since 1926, drafted a democratic constitution. The Council of the Revolution (CR), briefly a revolutionary military watchdog committee, was entrenched as part of the government under the constitution, until a later revision. During the chaotic year of 1975, about 30 persons were killed in political frays while unstable provisional governments came and went. On 25 November 1975, moderate military forces led by Colonel Ramalho Eanes, who later was twice elected president of the republic (1976 and 1981), defeated radical, leftist military groups' revolutionary conspiracies.

   In the meantime, Portugal's scattered overseas empire experienced a precipitous and unprepared decolonization. One by one, the former colonies were granted and accepted independence—Guinea-Bissau (September 1974), Cape Verde Islands (July 1975), and Mozambique (July 1975). Portugal offered to turn over Macau to the People's Republic of China, but the offer was refused then and later negotiations led to the establishment of a formal decolonization or hand-over date of 1999. But in two former colonies, the process of decolonization had tragic results.

   In Angola, decolonization negotiations were greatly complicated by the fact that there were three rival nationalist movements in a struggle for power. The January 1975 Alvor Agreement signed by Portugal and these three parties was not effectively implemented. A bloody civil war broke out in Angola in the spring of 1975 and, when Portuguese armed forces withdrew and declared that Angola was independent on 11 November 1975, the bloodshed only increased. Meanwhile, most of the white Portuguese settlers from Angola and Mozambique fled during the course of 1975. Together with African refugees, more than 600,000 of these retornados ("returned ones") went by ship and air to Portugal and thousands more to Namibia, South Africa, Brazil, Canada, and the United States.

   The second major decolonization disaster was in Portugal's colony of East Timor in the Indonesian archipelago. Portugal's capacity to supervise and control a peaceful transition to independence in this isolated, neglected colony was limited by the strength of giant Indonesia, distance from Lisbon, and Portugal's revolutionary disorder and inability to defend Timor. In early December 1975, before Portugal granted formal independence and as one party, FRETILIN, unilaterally declared East Timor's independence, Indonesia's armed forces invaded, conquered, and annexed East Timor. Indonesian occupation encountered East Timorese resistance, and a heavy loss of life followed. The East Timor question remained a contentious international issue in the UN, as well as in Lisbon and Jakarta, for more than 20 years following Indonesia's invasion and annexation of the former colony of Portugal. Major changes occurred, beginning in 1998, after Indonesia underwent a political revolution and allowed a referendum in East Timor to decide that territory's political future in August 1999. Most East Timorese chose independence, but Indonesian forces resisted that verdict until

   UN intervention in September 1999. Following UN rule for several years, East Timor attained full independence on 20 May 2002.

   Consolidation of Democracy, 1976-2000

   After several free elections and record voter turnouts between 25 April 1975 and June 1976, civil war was averted and Portugal's second democratic republic began to stabilize. The MFA was dissolved, the military were returned to the barracks, and increasingly elected civilians took over the government of the country. The 1976 Constitution was revised several times beginning in 1982 and 1989, in order to reempha-size the principle of free enterprise in the economy while much of the large, nationalized sector was privatized. In June 1976, General Ram-alho Eanes was elected the first constitutional president of the republic (five-year term), and he appointed socialist leader Dr. Mário Soares as prime minister of the first constitutional government.

   From 1976 to 1985, Portugal's new system featured a weak economy and finances, labor unrest, and administrative and political instability. The difficult consolidation of democratic governance was eased in part by the strong currency and gold reserves inherited from the Estado Novo, but Lisbon seemed unable to cope with high unemployment, new debt, the complex impact of the refugees from Africa, world recession, and the agitation of political parties. Four major parties emerged from the maelstrom of 1974-75, except for the Communist Party, all newly founded. They were, from left to right, the Communists (PCP); the Socialists (PS), who managed to dominate governments and the legislature but not win a majority in the Assembly of the Republic; the Social Democrats (PSD); and the Christian Democrats (CDS). During this period, the annual growth rate was low (l-2 percent), and the nationalized sector of the economy stagnated.

   Enhanced economic growth, greater political stability, and more effective central government as of 1985, and especially 1987, were due to several developments. In 1977, Portugal applied for membership in the European Economic Community (EEC), now the European Union (EU) since 1993. In January 1986, with Spain, Portugal was granted membership, and economic and financial progress in the intervening years has been significantly influenced by the comparatively large investment, loans, technology, advice, and other assistance from the EEC. Low unemployment, high annual growth rates (5 percent), and moderate inflation have also been induced by the new political and administrative stability in Lisbon. Led by Prime Minister Cavaco Silva, an economist who was trained abroad, the PSD's strong organization, management, and electoral support since 1985 have assisted in encouraging economic recovery and development. In 1985, the PSD turned the PS out of office and won the general election, although they did not have an absolute majority of assembly seats. In 1986, Mário Soares was elected president of the republic, the first civilian to hold that office since the First Republic. In the elections of 1987 and 1991, however, the PSD was returned to power with clear majorities of over 50 percent of the vote.

   Although the PSD received 50.4 percent of the vote in the 1991 parliamentary elections and held a 42-seat majority in the Assembly of the Republic, the party began to lose public support following media revelations regarding corruption and complaints about Prime Minister Cavaco Silva's perceived arrogant leadership style. President Mário Soares voiced criticism of the PSD's seemingly untouchable majority and described a "tyranny of the majority." Economic growth slowed down. In the parliamentary elections of 1995 and the presidential election of 1996, the PSD's dominance ended for the time being. Prime Minister Antônio Guterres came to office when the PS won the October 1995 elections, and in the subsequent presidential contest, in January 1996, socialist Jorge Sampaio, the former mayor of Lisbon, was elected president of the republic, thus defeating Cavaco Silva's bid. Young and popular, Guterres moved the PS toward the center of the political spectrum. Under Guterres, the PS won the October 1999 parliamentary elections. The PS defeated the PSD but did not manage to win a clear, working majority of seats, and this made the PS dependent upon alliances with smaller parties, including the PCP.

   In the local elections in December 2001, the PSD's criticism of PS's heavy public spending allowed the PSD to take control of the key cities of Lisbon, Oporto, and Coimbra. Guterres resigned, and parliamentary elections were brought forward from 2004 to March 2002. The PSD won a narrow victory with 40 percent of the votes, and Jose Durão Barroso became prime minister. Having failed to win a majority of the seats in parliament forced the PSD to govern in coalition with the right-wing Popular Party (PP) led by Paulo Portas. Durão Barroso set about reducing government spending by cutting the budgets of local authorities, freezing civil service hiring, and reviving the economy by accelerating privatization of state-owned enterprises. These measures provoked a 24-hour strike by public-sector workers. Durão Barroso reacted with vows to press ahead with budget-cutting measures and imposed a wage freeze on all employees earning more than €1,000, which affected more than one-half of Portugal's work force.

   In June 2004, Durão Barroso was invited by Romano Prodi to succeed him as president of the European Commission. Durão Barroso accepted and resigned the prime ministership in July. Pedro Santana Lopes, the leader of the PSD, became prime minister. Already unpopular at the time of Durão Barroso's resignation, the PSD-led government became increasingly unpopular under Santana Lopes. A month-long delay in the start of the school year and confusion over his plan to cut taxes and raise public-sector salaries, eroded confidence even more. By November, Santana Lopes's government was so unpopular that President Jorge Sampaio was obliged to dissolve parliament and hold new elections, two years ahead of schedule.

   Parliamentary elections were held on 20 February 2005. The PS, which had promised the electorate disciplined and transparent governance, educational reform, the alleviation of poverty, and a boost in employment, won 45 percent of the vote and the majority of the seats in parliament. The leader of the PS, José Sôcrates became prime minister on 12 March 2005. In the regularly scheduled presidential elections held on 6 January 2006, the former leader of the PSD and prime minister, Aníbal Cavaco Silva, won a narrow victory and became president on 9 March 2006. With a mass protest, public teachers' strike, and street demonstrations in March 2008, Portugal's media, educational, and social systems experienced more severe pressures. With the spreading global recession beginning in September 2008, Portugal's economic and financial systems became more troubled.

    Contemporary Portugal

   Owing to its geographic location on the southwestern most edge of continental Europe, Portugal has been historically in but not of Europe. Almost from the beginning of its existence in the 12th century as an independent monarchy, Portugal turned its back on Europe and oriented itself toward the Atlantic Ocean. After carving out a Christian kingdom on the western portion of the Iberian peninsula, Portuguese kings gradually built and maintained a vast seaborne global empire that became central to the way Portugal understood its individuality as a nation-state. While the creation of this empire allows Portugal to claim an unusual number of "firsts" or distinctions in world and Western history, it also retarded Portugal's economic, social, and political development. It can be reasonably argued that the Revolution of 25 April 1974 was the most decisive event in Portugal's long history because it finally ended Portugal's oceanic mission and view of itself as an imperial power. After the 1974 Revolution, Portugal turned away from its global mission and vigorously reoriented itself toward Europe. Contemporary Portugal is now both in and of Europe.

   The turn toward Europe began immediately after 25 April 1974. Portugal granted independence to its African colonies in 1975. It was admitted to the European Council and took the first steps toward accession to the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1976. On 28 March 1977, the Portuguese government officially applied for EEC membership. Because of Portugal's economic and social backwardness, which would require vast sums of EEC money to overcome, negotiations for membership were long and difficult. Finally, a treaty of accession was signed on 12 June 1985. Portugal officially joined the EEC (the European Union [EU] since 1993) on 1 January 1986. Since becoming a full-fledged member of the EU, Portugal has been steadily overcoming the economic and social underdevelopment caused by its imperial past and is becoming more like the rest of Europe.

   Membership in the EU has speeded up the structural transformation of Portugal's economy, which actually began during the Estado Novo. Investments made by the Estado Novo in Portugal's economy began to shift employment out of the agricultural sector, which, in 1950, accounted for 50 percent of Portugal's economically active population. Today, only 10 percent of the economically active population is employed in the agricultural sector (the highest among EU member states); 30 percent in the industrial sector (also the highest among EU member states); and 60 percent in the service sector (the lowest among EU member states). The economically active population numbers about 5,000,000 employed, 56 percent of whom are women. Women workers are the majority of the workforce in the agricultural and service sectors (the highest among the EU member states). The expansion of the service sector has been primarily in health care and education. Portugal has had the lowest unemployment rates among EU member states, with the overall rate never being more than 10 percent of the active population. Since joining the EU, the number of employers increased from 2.6 percent to 5.8 percent of the active population; self-employed from 16 to 19 percent; and employees from 65 to 70 percent. Twenty-six percent of the employers are women. Unemployment tends to hit younger workers in industry and transportation, women employed in domestic service, workers on short-term contracts, and poorly educated workers. Salaried workers earn only 63 percent of the EU average, and hourly workers only one-third to one-half of that earned by their EU counterparts. Despite having had the second highest growth of gross national product (GNP) per inhabitant (after Ireland) among EU member states, the above data suggest that while much has been accomplished in terms of modernizing the Portuguese economy, much remains to be done to bring Portugal's economy up to the level of the "average" EU member state.

   Membership in the EU has also speeded up changes in Portuguese society. Over the last 30 years, coastalization and urbanization have intensified. Fully 50 percent of Portuguese live in the coastal urban conurbations of Lisbon, Oporto, Braga, Aveiro, Coimbra, Viseu, Évora, and Faro. The Portuguese population is one of the oldest among EU member states (17.3 percent are 65 years of age or older) thanks to a considerable increase in life expectancy at birth (77.87 years for the total population, 74.6 years for men, 81.36 years for women) and one of the lowest birthrates (10.59 births/1,000) in Europe. Family size averages 2.8 persons per household, with the strict nuclear family (one or two generations) in which both parents work being typical. Common law marriages, cohabitating couples, and single-parent households are more and more common. The divorce rate has also increased. "Youth Culture" has developed. The young have their own meeting places, leisure-time activities, and nightlife (bars, clubs, and discos).

   All Portuguese citizens, whether they have contributed or not, have a right to an old-age pension, invalidity benefits, widowed persons' pension, as well as payments for disabilities, children, unemployment, and large families. There is a national minimum wage (€385 per month), which is low by EU standards. The rapid aging of Portugal's population has changed the ratio of contributors to pensioners to 1.7, the lowest in the EU. This has created deficits in Portugal's social security fund.

   The adult literacy rate is about 92 percent. Illiteracy is still found among the elderly. Although universal compulsory education up to grade 9 was achieved in 1980, only 21.2 percent of the population aged 25-64 had undergone secondary education, compared to an EU average of 65.7 percent. Portugal's higher education system currently consists of 14 state universities and 14 private universities, 15 state polytechnic institutions, one Catholic university, and one military academy. All in all, Portugal spends a greater percentage of its state budget on education than most EU member states. Despite this high level of expenditure, the troubled Portuguese education system does not perform well. Early leaving and repetition rates are among the highest among EU member states.

   After the Revolution of 25 April 1974, Portugal created a National Health Service, which today consists of 221 hospitals and 512 medical centers employing 33,751 doctors and 41,799 nurses. Like its education system, Portugal's medical system is inefficient. There are long waiting lists for appointments with specialists and for surgical procedures.

   Structural changes in Portugal's economy and society mean that social life in Portugal is not too different from that in other EU member states. A mass consumption society has been created. Televisions, telephones, refrigerators, cars, music equipment, mobile phones, and personal computers are commonplace. Sixty percent of Portuguese households possess at least one automobile, and 65 percent of Portuguese own their own home. Portuguese citizens are more aware of their legal rights than ever before. This has resulted in a trebling of the number of legal proceeding since 1960 and an eight-fold increase in the number of lawyers. In general, Portuguese society has become more permissive and secular; the Catholic Church and the armed forces are much less influential than in the past. Portugal's population is also much more culturally, religiously, and ethnically diverse, a consequence of the coming to Portugal of hundreds of thousands of immigrants, mainly from former African colonies.

   Portuguese are becoming more cosmopolitan and sophisticated through the impact of world media, the Internet, and the World Wide Web. A prime case in point came in the summer and early fall of 1999, with the extraordinary events in East Timor and the massive Portuguese popular responses. An internationally monitored referendum in East Timor, Portugal's former colony in the Indonesian archipelago and under Indonesian occupation from late 1975 to summer 1999, resulted in a vote of 78.5 percent for rejecting integration with Indonesia and for independence. When Indonesian prointegration gangs, aided by the Indonesian military, responded to the referendum with widespread brutality and threatened to reverse the verdict of the referendum, there was a spontaneous popular outpouring of protest in the cities and towns of Portugal. An avalanche of Portuguese e-mail fell on leaders and groups in the UN and in certain countries around the world as Portugal's diplomats, perhaps to compensate for the weak initial response to Indonesian armed aggression in 1975, called for the protection of East Timor as an independent state and for UN intervention to thwart Indonesian action. Using global communications networks, the Portuguese were able to mobilize UN and world public opinion against Indonesian actions and aided the eventual independence of East Timor on 20 May 2002.

   From the Revolution of 25 April 1974 until the 1990s, Portugal had a large number of political parties, one of the largest Communist parties in western Europe, frequent elections, and endemic cabinet instability. Since the 1990s, the number of political parties has been dramatically reduced and cabinet stability increased. Gradually, the Portuguese electorate has concentrated around two larger parties, the right-of-center Social Democrats (PSD) and the left-of-center Socialist (PS). In the 1980s, these two parties together garnered 65 percent of the vote and 70 percent of the seats in parliament. In 2005, these percentages had risen to 74 percent and 85 percent, respectively. In effect, Portugal is currently a two-party dominant system in which the two largest parties — PS and PSD—alternate in and out of power, not unlike the rotation of the two main political parties (the Regenerators and the Historicals) during the last decades (1850s to 1880s) of the liberal constitutional monarchy. As Portugal's democracy has consolidated, turnout rates for the eligible electorate have declined. In the 1970s, turnout was 85 percent. In Portugal's most recent parliamentary election (2005), turnout had fallen to 65 percent of the eligible electorate.

   Portugal has benefited greatly from membership in the EU, and whatever doubts remain about the price paid for membership, no Portuguese government in the near future can afford to sever this connection. The vast majority of Portuguese citizens see membership in the EU as a "good thing" and strongly believe that Portugal has benefited from membership. Only the Communist Party opposed membership because it reduces national sovereignty, serves the interests of capitalists not workers, and suffers from a democratic deficit. Despite the high level of support for the EU, Portuguese voters are increasingly not voting in elections for the European Parliament, however. Turnout for European Parliament elections fell from 40 percent of the eligible electorate in the 1999 elections to 38 percent in the 2004 elections.

   In sum, Portugal's turn toward Europe has done much to overcome its backwardness. However, despite the economic, social, and political progress made since 1986, Portugal has a long way to go before it can claim to be on a par with the level found even in Spain, much less the rest of western Europe. As Portugal struggles to move from underde-velopment, especially in the rural areas away from the coast, it must keep in mind the perils of too rapid modern development, which could damage two of its most precious assets: its scenery and environment. The growth and future prosperity of the economy will depend on the degree to which the government and the private sector will remain stewards of clean air, soil, water, and other finite resources on which the tourism industry depends and on which Portugal's world image as a unique place to visit rests. Currently, Portugal is investing heavily in renewable energy from solar, wind, and wave power in order to account for about 50 percent of its electricity needs by 2010. Portugal opened the world's largest solar power plant and the world's first commercial wave power farm in 2006.

   An American documentary film on Portugal produced in the 1970s described this little country as having "a Past in Search of a Future." In the years after the Revolution of 25 April 1974, it could be said that Portugal is now living in "a Present in Search of a Future." Increasingly, that future lies in Europe as an active and productive member of the EU.

Historical dictionary of Portugal > Historical Portugal
7 ISS

1) Общая лексика: Information Systems and Services (информационные системы и услуги), In School Suspension, временное отстранение от школы, применяется в виде наказания

2) Медицина: Investigator Sponsored Study (Исследование, спонсируемое ( проводимое) исследователем), idiopathic short stature (идиопатическая низкорослость)

3) Американизм: Immigrant Social Services, Intelligence Systems Secretariat, International Sucking Sound

4) Спорт: International Superstar Soccer

5) Военный термин: Information Security System, Inspection Selection System, Institute for Strategic Studies, Institute of Special Studies, Integrated Systems Support, Intelligence Support Staff, Intelligence Support Subsystem, Interactive Survivability Simulation, image sensor system, image sharpness scale, independent suspension system, industrial security section, industry standard specifications, inertial subsystem, information system section, infrared sensor system, infrared surveillance set, installation support services, instruction summary sheet, instrumentation subsystem, integrated satellite system, integrated sealift study, integrated system, schematic, intercept surveillance station, intermediate service school, internal switching system, interservice supply support, interservice support, interstage section shell

6) Техника: Institute for Security Studies, infrared surveillance system, intercomputer synchronization scheme, ionosphere sounding station

7) Шутливое выражение: Instant Space Station, Institute Of Silly Strings

8) Автомобильный термин: input shaft speed, instant start system (diesel engine)

9) Сокращение: In-Service Support, Information Systems Security, Input SubSystem, Institute for Socioeconomic Studies, Institute of Space Sciences, Intelligence Support System, Interface Shipset (Canada), Interference Suppression System, International Security Services Ltd (UK), International Social Service, International Space Station, International Students Society, International Symbology Specification (USPS pub. 109) for barcode

10) Университет: Institute of Social Studies, Instructional Support Staff, International Students Service

11) Физика: ion scattering spectroscopy

12) Электроника: Ion Scattering Spectrometry/Spectroscopy

13) Вычислительная техника: image storage system

14) Нефть: instrument safety system

15) Космонавтика: МКС, международная космическая станция

16) Экология: International Seaweed Symposium, Ionosphere Sounding Satellite

17) Деловая лексика: Instrument Sales And Service

18) Образование: Indiana Science Standards

19) Сетевые технологии: Initial Send Sequence, Internet Server Supplement, integrated support station, пункт комплексного технического обслуживания

20) Автоматика: information-sharing system

21) Океанография: Inclination Sensor System, Integrated Sounding System

22) Химическое оружие: Installation Support System, influent suspended solids, installation supply system

23) Макаров: interim storage site

24) Клинические исследования: integrated summary of safety

Универсальный англо-русский словарь > ISS
8 iss

1) Общая лексика: Information Systems and Services (информационные системы и услуги), In School Suspension, временное отстранение от школы, применяется в виде наказания

2) Медицина: Investigator Sponsored Study (Исследование, спонсируемое ( проводимое) исследователем), idiopathic short stature (идиопатическая низкорослость)

3) Американизм: Immigrant Social Services, Intelligence Systems Secretariat, International Sucking Sound

4) Спорт: International Superstar Soccer

5) Военный термин: Information Security System, Inspection Selection System, Institute for Strategic Studies, Institute of Special Studies, Integrated Systems Support, Intelligence Support Staff, Intelligence Support Subsystem, Interactive Survivability Simulation, image sensor system, image sharpness scale, independent suspension system, industrial security section, industry standard specifications, inertial subsystem, information system section, infrared sensor system, infrared surveillance set, installation support services, instruction summary sheet, instrumentation subsystem, integrated satellite system, integrated sealift study, integrated system, schematic, intercept surveillance station, intermediate service school, internal switching system, interservice supply support, interservice support, interstage section shell

6) Техника: Institute for Security Studies, infrared surveillance system, intercomputer synchronization scheme, ionosphere sounding station

7) Шутливое выражение: Instant Space Station, Institute Of Silly Strings

8) Автомобильный термин: input shaft speed, instant start system (diesel engine)

9) Сокращение: In-Service Support, Information Systems Security, Input SubSystem, Institute for Socioeconomic Studies, Institute of Space Sciences, Intelligence Support System, Interface Shipset (Canada), Interference Suppression System, International Security Services Ltd (UK), International Social Service, International Space Station, International Students Society, International Symbology Specification (USPS pub. 109) for barcode

10) Университет: Institute of Social Studies, Instructional Support Staff, International Students Service

11) Физика: ion scattering spectroscopy

12) Электроника: Ion Scattering Spectrometry/Spectroscopy

13) Вычислительная техника: image storage system

14) Нефть: instrument safety system

15) Космонавтика: МКС, международная космическая станция

16) Экология: International Seaweed Symposium, Ionosphere Sounding Satellite

17) Деловая лексика: Instrument Sales And Service

18) Образование: Indiana Science Standards

19) Сетевые технологии: Initial Send Sequence, Internet Server Supplement, integrated support station, пункт комплексного технического обслуживания

20) Автоматика: information-sharing system

21) Океанография: Inclination Sensor System, Integrated Sounding System

22) Химическое оружие: Installation Support System, influent suspended solids, installation supply system

23) Макаров: interim storage site

24) Клинические исследования: integrated summary of safety

Универсальный англо-русский словарь > iss
9 service

̈ɪˈsə:vɪs I
1. сущ.
1) служба, занятие, работа to press smb. into service ≈ заставлять кого-л. служить to take smb. into one's service ≈ нанимать кого-л. meritorious service service record
2) а) учреждение, подразделение (в компетенции которого находятся те или иные вопросы) б) служба obstetrical service ≈ служба родовспоможения
3) обслуживание, оказание услуг, сервис to do, perform, provide, render a service ≈ предлагать услуги, обслуживать to introduce, offer service ≈ предлагать услуги to suspend a service ≈ временно прекращать обслуживание service charge ≈ плата за операцию (общераспространенный сбор за банковские услуги) emergency service ≈ неотложная помощь, скорая помощь orientation service ≈ служба профориентации per-call service ≈ плата по числу звонков
4) сообщение, связь, движение;
рейсы (between;
from;
to) to introduce service ≈ вводить сообщение to offer, provide service ≈ обеспечивать сообщение to run on a regular service ≈ обеспечивать регулярное сообщение to suspend service ≈ временно прекращать сообщение human services ≈ сфера услуг
5) помощь, одолжение, услуга I am glad to be of service. ≈ Рад оказать услугу. at your service ≈ к вашим услугам Syn: help, use
1., benefit
1.
6) а) государственная служба Civil Service ≈ государственная (гражданская) служба National Service ≈ воинская или трудовая повинность( в Англии) civil service ≈ государственная служба consular service ≈ консульская служба diplomatic service ≈ дипломатическая служба foreign service ≈ дипломатическая служба intelligence service ≈ секретная служба, разведывательная служба secret service ≈ секретная служба, разведывательная служба, разведка б) военная служба
7) воен. род войск
8) сервиз coffee service ≈ кофейный сервиз dinner service ≈ обеденный сервиз tea service ≈ чайный сервиз
9) повестка, судебное извещение
10) мор. клетневание
11) спорт подача( мяча) to break smb.'s service ≈ отбить чью-л. подачу to hold one's service ≈ удерживать подачу to lose one's service ≈ проиграть подачу
12) церк. служба, месса to hold a service ≈ служить службу burial service marriage service memorial service prayer service religious service evening service morning service noontime service sunrise service
2. гл.
1) обслуживать, служить, быть полезным Syn: serve
2) а) амер. проводить технический осмотр, ремонтировать (машины и т. п.) She enjoyed her work, which consisted chiefly in running and servicing a powerful but tricky electric motor. ≈ Ей нравилась ее работа, которая заключалась в запуске и осуществлении текущего технического обеспечения электрического двигателя. б) заправлять горючим
3) выплачивать проценты по долгу
4) обеспечивать (чем-л.)
5) случать( животных) II = service-tree услужение - domestic * домашняя работа, обязанности слуги - to be in( smb.'s) * быть слугой, служить (у кого-л.) - to go into /to, out to/ * пойти в прислуги - to take * with smb. поступать к кому-л. в прислуги - to take smb. into one's * нанимать кого-л., брать в услужение кого-л. - last week the cook left our * на прошлой неделе от нас ушла кухарка работа - hard * тяжелая работа - to be out of * быть без работы /без места/ - to go out of * уйти с работы - to reward smb. for his good * награждать кого-л. за хорошую службу - to be on detached * быть в командировке - to send smb. off on special * послать кого-л. со специальным заданием - he gives good * он хорошо работает, он отличный работник рабочий стаж, срок службы - prolonged meritorious * выслуга лет - to have ten years * иметь десятилетний стаж работы государственная служба - the Civil S. государственная /гражданская/ служба - to be in the Civil S. быть на гражданской /на государственной/ службе - the diplomatic *, (американизм) Foreign S. дипломатическая служба - the consular * консульская служба - on His Majesty's S. (сокр. O.H.M.S.) на службе его величества (форма франкирования официальной переписки) учреждение (ведающее специальной отраслью работы) - information * информационная служба - reporting *s отдел официальных отчетов (ООН) - administrative *s административный отдел( секретариата ООН) ;
административные службы - typewriting * машинописное бюро служба - telegraph * телеграфная связь - communication * служба связи - railway *, * of trains железнодорожное сообщение - passenger * пассажирское сообщение - to restore normal train * восстановить регулярное движение поездов - to institute a new air * ввести новую линию воздушного сообщения - the telephone * is out of order телефонная связь нарушена - to operate regular *s from A. to B. установить регулярные рейсы между А. и Б. обслуживание, сервис - good * at a hotel хорошее обслуживание в гостинице - prompt * быстрое обслуживание - to give customers prompt * быстро обслуживать покупателей - medical * медицинское обслуживание - electric-light * обеспечение электроэнергией сфера услуг;
обслуживание населения;
служба быта, сервис - * workers работники, занятые в сфере обслуживания (продавцы, парикмахеры, официанты и т. п.) библиотечное обслуживание (тж. * to readers) - * catalogue служебный каталог - * fee плата за абонемент - * hours часы работы( библиотеки) военная служба - Selective S. (американизм) воинская повинность для отдельных граждан (по отбору) - active *, * with the colours действительная военная служба - to be called up for active * быть призванным на действительную военную службу - to do one's military * проходить военную службу - to be in the * служить в армии - length /period/ of * срок военной службы - fit for * годен к военной службе - to quit the * увольняться с военной службы - to be dismissed /discharged/ from the * быть уволенным с военной службы - to retire from * выйти в отставку - * ashore( морское) береговая служба - sea * служба на плавающих кораблях - examination * (морское) брандвахтенная /досмотровая/ служба - daily * (морское) служба корабельных нарядов( военное) вид вооруженных сил;
род войск - the three *s - the army, the navy, the aviation три рода войск: сухопутные войска, военно-морской флот и военно-воздушные силы - what branch of the * do you expect to enter? в какой род войск вы будете зачислены? услуга, одолжение;
помощь - to be at smb.'s * быть к чьим-л. услугам - I am at your * я к вашим услугам /в вашем распоряжении/ - to offer one's *s предлагать свои услуги - to be of * to smb. быть кому-л. полезным, пригодиться кому-л., сослужить кому-л. службу - glad to be of * to you рад быть вам полезным - to do /to render/ smb. a (great) * оказать кому-л. (большую) услугу - will you do me a *? окажите мне услугу - what good *s this pen has done me! эта ручка мне хорошо послужила! - you do yourself no * by such replies вы себе только вредите такими ответами - he didn't need the *s of an interpreter он не нуждался в услугах /в помощи/ переводчика - in gratitude for your valuable *s в благодарность за ваши неоценимые услуги - an exchange of friendly *s обмен дружескими услугами - the dictionary is of enormous * to students этот словарь оказывает большую помощь учащимся заслуга - great *s большие заслуги - prominent *s to the State выдающиеся заслуги перед государством - to exaggerate one's own *s преувеличивать собственные заслуги - for smb.'s past *s за прошлые заслуги сервиз - dinner * обеденный сервиз - a * of china фарфоровый сервиз прибор - toilet * туалетный прибор( церковное) богослужение, служба - morning * утренняя служба - burial * отпевание - marriage * венчание - baptismal * крестины - memorial * заупокойная служба, панихида - to attend a * присутствовать на богослужении - to conduct a * вести службу - are you going to *? ты идешь в церковь подача мяча (теннис) - your *! ваша подача! - strong * сильная подача - * ball мяч, вводимый в игру с подачи (юридическое) исполнение постановления суда;
вручение( повестки и т. п.) ;
судебное извещение - personal * личное оповещение - substituted * оповещение по почте - * of a writ копия распоряжения суда - * of attachment приведение в исполнение судебного постановления о взятии лица под стражу (сельскохозяйственное) случка - * period сервис-период (от отела до плодотворной случки) (морское) клетневание (техническое) эксплуатация - * instructions правила эксплуатации - * life эксплуатационный срок службы - a radio set with free 12 months * радиоприемник с гарантией на год > to have seen * быть в долгом употреблении, износиться > my overcoat has seen long * мое пальто уже износилось /отслужило свой век/ > his face has seen * по его лицу видно, что он не молод /что он видал виды/ военный;
относящийся к вооруженным силам - * age (group) призывной возраст - * aviation военная авиация - * call уставной /служебный/ сигнал - * certificate служебное удостоверение;
свидетельство - * chevron нашивка за шестимесячную службу на фронте - * families семьи военнослужащих - * number личный номер( военнослужащего) - * record послужной список - * ribbon орденская планка - * test испытания в войсках, войсковые испытания - * troops войска обслуживания;
тыловые части и подразделения - * uniform /dress/ повседневная форма одежды - * unit обслуживающая часть - * weapon боевое оружие служебный - * entrance служебный вход - * call служебный телефонный разговор( особ. международный) - * stair черный ход - * benefits выходное пособие;
(военное) льготы и привилегии военнослужащих - * conditions( техническое) условия эксплуатации /работы/ повседневный;
прочный, ноский( об одежде) обслуживающий - * trades профессии, относящиеся к сфере обслуживания обслуживать производить осмотр и текущий ремонт - to * a car обслуживать автомобиль заправлять( горючим) - to * a car with gasoline заправлять машину горючим (ботаника) рябина домашняя (Pyrus domestica) - wild * кустарник или невысокое дерево с горькими плодами account solicitation ~ бюро рассмотрения ходатайств о предоставлении кредитов advisory ~ консультативная служба (например, по вопросам трудоустройства, профессиональной ориентации и т. д.) aftersales ~ послепродажное обслуживание ambulance ~ служба "Скорой помощи";
"Скорая помощь" as a ~ в качестве услуги ~ услуга, одолжение;
at your service к вашим услугам;
to be of service быть полезным auxiliary ~ вспомогательная служба, дополнительная (побочная) служба bank transfer ~ банковские переводы bathing ~ банная служба ~ услуга, одолжение;
at your service к вашим услугам;
to be of service быть полезным bus ~ автобусное сообщение car hire ~ служба проката автомобилей care attendant ~s услуги по уходу за больными central care ~ центральная служба по уходу civic ~ служба общественных работ;
участие( безработных) в общественных работах и в общественных службах civil alternative ~ альтернативная воинская служба на объектах общественного характер cleaning ~ служба по очистке территорий и удалению мусора client ~ обслуживание клиентов client ~ обслуживание клиентуры combined ~ смешанные перевозки community ~ государственная служба community ~ общинная служба community ~ социальное обеспечение complimentary limousine ~ бесплатное обслуживание автомобильным транспортом compulsory military ~ воинская повинность;
обязательная воинская служба в течение установленного законом срока consultative ~ консультативная служба consumer ~ обслуживание потребителей courier ~ услуги курьера customer ~ вчт. обслуживание клиентов customer ~ обслуживание покупателя customer ~ предоставление услуг покупателю datel ~ вчт. система передачи по телефону кодированой информации dealing ~ обслуживание биржевых операций delayed ~ вчт. обслуживание с ожиданием diffusion ~ служба распространения direct debiting ~ банковские услуги по оформлению безналичных платежей divine ~ богослужение drop-in ~ служба помощи без предварительной записи (оказывает помощь алкоголикам, наркоманам, бездомным) educational ~ служба обучения (воспитания, переподготовки, переквалификации) elapsed ~ вчт. обслуживание выполненное до прерывания emergency call ~ телефонная служба скорой помощи employment ~ служба занятости employment ~ служба занятости;
служба трудоустройства employment ~ служба по трудоустройству employment ~ служба трудоустройства environmental ~ экологическая служба escort ~ служба сопровождения;
караульная служба exempt from military ~ освобожденный от военной службы extention ~ служба распространения знаний farm relief ~ служба содействия фермерским хозяйствам ferry ~ паромное сообщение ferry ~ служба морских перевозок financial ~ финансовая консультационная фирма financial ~ финансовое обслуживание free ~ бесплатная услуга freight ~ грузовые перевозки freight ~ предоставление транспортных услуг friendly visiting ~s бесплатные услуги на дому( оказываемые благотворительными организациями или отдельными лицами) goods ~ доставка товаров government ~ государственная служба gratuitions ~ бесплатная служба home-help ~ служба помощи по дому hourly ~ транс. почасовое обслуживание 24 hours social ~s круглосуточные социальные службы housing ~ жилищная служба information ~ вчт. информационная служба information ~ служба информации interpreter ~ служба перевода;
служба переводчиков investment management ~ служба управления портфелем ценных бумаг investment ~ обслуживание инвестирования joint ~ совместное обслуживание limousine ~ прокат автомобиля с водителем line ~ рейсовое плавание mail ~ почтовая связь maximum debt ~ максимальная сумма процентов по долгу minimum debt ~ минимальное обслуживание долга municipal health ~ муниципальная служба здравоохранения national health ~ государственная служба здравоохранения news ~ служба новостей night ~ ночная служба non-military ~ невоенная служба, альтернативная гражданская служба non-military ~ невоенная служба nonpreemptive ~ вчт. обслуживание без прерывания nonpreferential ~ вчт. обслуживание без приоритета order booking ~ приказ об обслуживании ordered ~ вчт. обслуживание в порядке поступления ordinary ~ обычная услуга ordinary ~ обычное обслуживание out-patient ~ амбулаторное обслуживание outside ~ обслуживание силами посторонней организации parcel bulk ~ перевозка мелкой партии бестарного груза personal ~ личное вручение судебного приказа pharmaceutical ~ фармацевтмческая служба;
фармацевтическое ослуживание phase ~ вчт. многофазное обслуживание phase-type ~ вчт. многофазное обслуживание placement ~ биржа труда placement ~ бюро трудоустройства placement ~ служба занятости police ~ полицейская служба postal ~ почтовая связь postal ~ почтовая служба preemptive ~ вчт. обслуживание с прерыванием premium ~ услуга, предоставляемая за дополнительную плату priority ~ вчт. обслуживание с приоритетом probationary ~ служба, исполняющая приговор о направлении на "испытание" property ~ услуги по управлению имуществом provide a ~ обеспечивать обслуживание provide a ~ оказывать услугу public employment ~ государственная служба занятости purchased ~ оплаченная услуга put into ~ вводить в эксплуатацию put into ~ включать в работу quantum ~ вчт. обслуживание порциями referral ~ справочная служба regular ~ регулярное сообщение regular ~ регулярные рейсы salvage ~ услуги по спасанию ~ церк. служба;
to say a service отправлять богослужение security ~ служба безопасности selection for ~ выбор на обслуживание self-drive car-hire ~ прокат легкового автомобиля без водителя ~ attr. служебный;
service record послужной список ~ by letter судебное извещение путем направления письма ~ by post судебное извещение по почте ~ in batches вчт. групповое обслуживание ~ in bulk групповое обслуживание ~ in cyclic order обслуживание в циклическом порядке ~ in random order обслуживание в случайном порядке ~ loss coefficient коэффициент простоя вследствие обслуживания ~ of court notice to pay debt вручение уведомления суда об уплате долга ~ of notice вручение извещения ~ of process повестка ~ of process процессуальное извещение, повестка ~ of process процессуальное извещение ~ of public lands эксплуатация государственных земель ~ of summons извещение, повестка о вызове в суд ~ on loan погашение долга ~ on loan уплата долга ~ attr. служебный;
service record послужной список ~ time expectation математическое ожидание времени обслуживания ~ with privileged interruptions вчт. обслуживание с прерыванием ~ with waiting вчт. обслуживание с ожиданием ~ without interruption вчт. обслуживание без прерывания service = service-tree service-tree: service-tree бот. рябина домашняя ~ воен. род войск;
the (fighting) services армия, флот и военная авиация services: services обслуживающие отрасли экономики ~ сфера услуг ~ услуги shuttle ~ движение туда и обратно( поездов, автобусов и т. п.), маятниковое движение single ~ вчт. обслуживание одиночных требований sitting ~ служба по присмотру за детьми на время отсутствия дома родителей social ~ социальная служба;
социальное обслуживание social ~ социальная услуга social ~s социальные службы (например, службы здравоохранения, профилактики заболеванй и предотвращения несчастных случаев) services: social ~ общественные учреждения social ~ социальные услуги substituted ~ субститут личного вручения судебного приказа ~ служба;
to take into one's service нанимать;
to take service (with smb.) поступать на службу (к кому-л.) ~ служба;
to take into one's service нанимать;
to take service (with smb.) поступать на службу (к кому-л.) training ~ служба профподготовки transport ~ транспортная линия transport ~ транспортное обслуживание unarmed ~ альтернативная служба (вместо военной) useful ~ вчт. срок полезного использования videotex ~ служба видеотексной связи voluntary ~ добровольная служба, добровольное оказание услуг warranty ~ вчт. гарантийная наработка welfare ~ служба социального обеспечения

Большой англо-русский и русско-английский словарь > service
10 class

1. plural - classes; noun
1) (a group of people or things that are alike in some way: The dog won first prize in its class in the dog show.) klasse

2) ((the system according to which people belong to) one of a number of economic/social groups: the upper class; the middle class; the working class; ( also adjective) the class system.) klasse

3) (a grade or rank (of merit): musicians of a high class.) klasse

4) (a number of students or scholars taught together: John and I are in the same class.) klasse

5) (a school lesson or college lecture etc: a French class.) time; undervisning

6) ((American) a course or series of lectures, often leading to an examination.) kursus
2. verb
(to regard as being of a certain type: He classes all women as stupid.) klassificere

- classmate
- class-room
* * *
1. plural - classes; noun
1) (a group of people or things that are alike in some way: The dog won first prize in its class in the dog show.) klasse

2) ((the system according to which people belong to) one of a number of economic/social groups: the upper class; the middle class; the working class; ( also adjective) the class system.) klasse

3) (a grade or rank (of merit): musicians of a high class.) klasse

4) (a number of students or scholars taught together: John and I are in the same class.) klasse

5) (a school lesson or college lecture etc: a French class.) time; undervisning

6) ((American) a course or series of lectures, often leading to an examination.) kursus
2. verb
(to regard as being of a certain type: He classes all women as stupid.) klassificere

- classmate
- class-room

English-Danish dictionary > class
11 activity

ækˈtɪvɪtɪ сущ.
1) деятельность to break off (terminate) an activity ≈ прекращать деятельность to buzz, hum with activity ≈ кипеть( о деятельности), наполняться гулом вследствие активной деятельности to curb, paralyze activity ≈ сдерживать чью-л. активность to engage in (participate in, take part in) an activity ≈ принимать участие в какой-л. деятельности to resume one's activities ≈ возобновлять деятельность All students take part in extracurricular activities. ≈ Все студенты занимаются какой-либо деятельностью, не связанной с учебой. Business activity was paralyzed. ≈ Деловая активность была парализована. behind-the-scenes activity burst of activity business activity bustling activity constant activity economic activity extracurricular activity feverish activity furious activity intellectual activity higher nervous activity life activity vital activity milk-electing activity physical activity political activity recreational activity scientific activity social activity subversive activity terrorist activity uninterrupted activity union activities Syn: project
2) активность;
интенсивность, энергия kinetic activity ≈ двигательная активность the electrical activity of the brain ≈ электрическая активность мозга, биотоки мозга cortical activity ≈ мед. активность коры головного мозга, корковая активность
3) эк. экономическая активность;
хозяйственная деятельность ∙ Ant: inactivity, inertia, inertness, laziness, sloth
деятельность;
- man of * активный человек;
- physical * физическая работа;
двигательная активность активность;
энергия;
- time of full * период наибольшей активности;
- the film is full of * фильм полон событий, в картине все время что-то происходит активно действующая сила деятельность, действия;
- social * общественная деятельность;
- classroom activities классные занятия - literary activities литературная деятельность - he has many activities to take up his time when he's not working у него есть чем заняться в свободное от работы время( военное) боевые действия локального характера (экономика) экономическая активность;
хозяйственная деятельность;
- * in the market оживление на рынке;
- competitive * конкурентная борьба (американизм) инстанция;
орган, учреждение показатели в экономических исследованиях (экономика) самодеятельность населения (физическое) радиоактивность

activity активность;
энергия ~ активность ~ деятельность;
social activities культурно-просветительные мероприятия ~ операция ~ организация ~ производство ~ работа ~ учреждение ~ хозяйственная деятельность ~ экономическая деятельность

building ~ сооружение building ~ строительство

business ~ деловая активность business ~ торгово-промышленная деятельность business ~ хозяйственная деятельность business ~ экономическая деятельность

computer activities деятельность в области компьютеризации

concurrent activities вчт. параллельные операции

construction ~ строительство

economic ~ деловая активность economic ~ торгово-промышленная деятельность economic ~ хозяйственная деятельность economic ~ экономическая активность

expanding branch of ~ расширяющаяся область деятельности

government ~ деятельность правительства

high business ~ полит.эк. высокая деловая активность

humanitarian ~ гуманитарная деятельность

investment ~ инвестиционная деятельность

issuing ~ организация выпуска

lead-time ~ вчт. операция ожидания

leisure ~ деятельность в свободное от работы время

low business ~ низкий уровень экономической активности low business ~ слабая конъюнктура

low economic ~ низкий уровень экономической активности low economic ~ слабая конъюнктура

low industrial ~ низкий уровень производственной деятельности

main ~ основная деятельность main ~ основная работа main ~ основной род занятий

mining ~ разработка месторождений полезных ископаемых

mortgage credit ~ операции с ипотечным кредитом

mortgage loan ~ ипотечное кредитование

overlapping activities вчт. перекрывающиеся функции

principal ~ основная деятельность

productive ~ производственная деятельность

professional ~ профессиональная деятельность

recreational ~ деятельность по организации отдыха (работе домов отдыха, санаториев, турбаз, молодежных лагерей и т. д.)

~ деятельность;
social activities культурно-просветительные мероприятия

standard-setting activities деятельность по разработке норм

state ~ государственная деятельность

system ~ вчт. учет системных ресурсов

wholesale ~ оптовая купля-продажа wholesale ~ оптовая торговля

Большой англо-русский и русско-английский словарь > activity
12 provision

prə'viʒən
1. noun
1) (the act of providing: The government are responsible for the provision of education for all children.) provisión, abastecimiento; facilitación

2) (an agreed arrangement.) cláusula, disposición, estipulación

3) (a rule or condition.) condición

2. verb
(to supply (especially an army) with food.) abastecimiento, provisión, suministro

- provisional
- provisionally
- provisions
- make provision for

provision n provisión / suministro

the government is responsible for the provision of health care el gobierno es el responsable de la provisión de asistencia sanitaria

provisión sustantivo femenino
1 provision, supply
2 provisiones, (víveres) provisions pl ' provisión' also found in these entries: Spanish: prestación - suministro - aprovisionar - equipar English: provision - store - board - catering - housing - public - supply

provision

tr[prə'vɪʒən]

noun

1 (supply - gen) suministro, abastecimiento; (of funds) provisión nombre femenino

2 (preparation) previsiones nombre femenino plural

■ they made provision against bad weather tomaron precauciones por si hacía mal tiempo

3 SMALLLAW/SMALL (stipulation) disposición nombre femenino; (condition) condición nombre femenino

■ under the provisions of the agreement según lo que estipula el acuerdo

plural noun provisions

1 (food) provisiones nombre femenino plural, víveres nombre masculino plural

\

SMALLIDIOMATIC EXPRESSION/SMALL

to make provision for the future (gen) prever el futuro 2 (money) ahorrar para el futuro

to make provision for somebody atender las necesidades de alguien, asegurar el porvenir de alguien

with the provision that... con tal de que..., con la condición de que...

provision [prə'vɪʒən] vt

: aprovisionar, abastecer

provision n

1) providing: provisión f, suministro m

2) stipulation: condición f, salvedad f, estipulación f

3) provisions npl

: despensa f, víveres mpl, provisiones fpl

provision

n.

• apercibimiento s.m.

• avío s.m.

• disposición s.f.

• estipulación s.f.

• expediente s.m.

• guarnición s.f.

• provisión s.f.

• suministro s.m.

v.

• aprovisionar v.

• bastimentar v.

• vituallar v.

I 'prə'vɪʒən
noun

1) u

a) ( of funding) provisión f; (of food, supplies) suministro m, aprovisionamiento m

b) ( what is supplied)

how can we improve existing social provision? — ¿cómo podríamos mejorar los servicios or las prestaciones sociales existentes?

there is very good provision for the elderly — las necesidades de los ancianos están muy bien atendidas

2) u ( preparatory arrangements) previsiones fpl

to make provision for the future — hacer* previsiones para el futuro

she made no provision for him in her will — no le dejó nada en el testamento

3) c ( stipulation) (Govt, Law) disposición f

under o according to the provisions of the treaty... — según lo que estipula el tratado...

with the provision that... — con la condición de que..., con tal de que...

4) provisions pl provisiones fpl, víveres mpl

II

transitive verb abastecer*, aprovisionar

[prǝ'vɪʒǝn]
1. N

1) (=act of providing) [of funds, accommodation, jobs] provisión f ; [of food, water] suministro m, abastecimiento m ; [of service, care] prestación f

provision of adequate toilet facilities on the site is essential — es esencial que la obra esté provista de aseos adecuados

the provision of care for the elderly — la prestación de asistencia social a los ancianos

• to get in or lay in a provision of coal — abastecerse de carbón

2) (=amount, number provided)

nursery provision is usually poor in country areas — la provisión de guarderías es generalmente escasa en las zonas rurales, suele haber pocas guarderías en las zonas rurales

there is inadequate housing provision for the poor — la provisión de viviendas para los pobres es insuficiente

they have cut their provision of grants to research students — han reducido la cantidad de ayudas destinadas a la investigación

recent government policies have squeezed welfare provision — las recientes medidas gubernamentales han reducido las prestaciones en materia de bienestar social

3) (=arrangements)

a) (gen) previsiones fpl

• to make provision for sth/sb — hacer previsiones para algo/algn

• the government had made no provision for the refugees — el gobierno no había hecho previsiones para los refugiados

b) (=financial arrangements) provisiones fpl

• to make provision for sth/sb, you must make provision for your old age — debes hacer provisiones para la vejez

to make provision for one's family — asegurar el porvenir de su familia

she would find some way of making proper provision for her baby — ya encontraría alguna manera de proveer para su bebé

he has made financial provision for his son's education — ha hecho provisiones económicas para la educación de su hijo

the state makes provision for people without alternative resources — el estado hace provisiones para la gente que no tiene otras fuentes de ingreso

• he made no provision in his will for his only child Violet — no incluyó a su única hija, Violet, en el testamento

4) provisions (=food) provisiones fpl, víveres mpl

5) (=stipulation) estipulación f, disposición f

under or according to the provisions of the treaty — en virtud de las estipulaciones or disposiciones del tratado

• there is no provision for this in the rules, the rules make no provision for this — las reglas no disponen en previsión de esto

• it comes within the provisions of this law — está comprendido dentro de lo estipulado por esta ley, está comprendido dentro de las estipulaciones or disposiciones de esta ley

6) (=condition, proviso) condición f

• with the provision that — con la condición de que

she approved, with one provision: that... — dio su aprobación con una condición: que...

2.

VT aprovisionar, abastecer

• to be provisioned with sth — frm estar provisto de algo

* * *

I ['prə'vɪʒən]
noun

1) u

a) ( of funding) provisión f; (of food, supplies) suministro m, aprovisionamiento m

b) ( what is supplied)

how can we improve existing social provision? — ¿cómo podríamos mejorar los servicios or las prestaciones sociales existentes?

there is very good provision for the elderly — las necesidades de los ancianos están muy bien atendidas

2) u ( preparatory arrangements) previsiones fpl

to make provision for the future — hacer* previsiones para el futuro

she made no provision for him in her will — no le dejó nada en el testamento

3) c ( stipulation) (Govt, Law) disposición f

under o according to the provisions of the treaty... — según lo que estipula el tratado...

with the provision that... — con la condición de que..., con tal de que...

4) provisions pl provisiones fpl, víveres mpl

II

transitive verb abastecer*, aprovisionar

English-spanish dictionary > provision
13 share

ʃeə
1. noun
1) (one of the parts of something that is divided among several people etc: We all had a share of the cake; We each paid our share of the bill.) parte

2) (the part played by a person in something done etc by several people etc: I had no share in the decision.) parte

3) (a fixed sum of money invested in a business company by a shareholder.) acción, participación

2. verb
1) ((usually with among, between, with) to divide among a number of people: We shared the money between us.) repartir, dividir

2) (to have, use etc (something that another person has or uses); to allow someone to use (something one has or owns): The students share a sitting-room; The little boy hated sharing his toys.) compartir

3) ((sometimes with in) to have a share of with someone else: He wouldn't let her share the cost of the taxi.) compartir

•

- shareholder
- share and share alike

share¹ n parte

here is your share of the money aquí tienes tu parte del dinero

share² vb

1. dividir / repartir

we shared the money between us nos repartimos el dinero

2. compartir

I shared a flat with a friend compartía piso con un amigo

El gerundio de share se escribe sharing

share

tr[ʃeə^SMALLr/SMALL]

noun

1 (portion) parte nombre femenino

■ you've already eaten your share! ¡ya te has comido tu parte!

■ you'll get your share of the winnings recibirás tu parte de las ganancias

■ she's had her share of bad luck ha tenido su parte de mala suerte

2 SMALLFINANCE/SMALL (held by shareholder) acción nombre femenino; (held by partner) participación nombre femenino

transitive verb

1 (have or use with others) compartir; (have in common) compartir, tener en común

■ can you share one book between two? ¿podéis compartir un libro entre los dos?

■ I used to share a bedroom with my sister compartía una habitación con mi hermana

■ let's share a taxi compartamos un taxi

2 (tell news, feelings, etc) compartir

■ she wanted to share her secret with someone quería compartir el secreto con alguien

3 (divide) repartir, dividir

■ the profits are shared out among the workers se reparten los beneficios entre los trabajadores

■ share the cake between everyone divide el pastel entre todos

intransitive verb

1 compartir

■ there's only one bed so you'll have to share sólo hay una cama así que tendréis que compartirla

\

SMALLIDIOMATIC EXPRESSION/SMALL

a problem shared is a problem halved las penas compartidas son menos penas

to share and share alike compartir las cosas

to do one's share hacer su parte

to go shares pagar a medias

share capital capital nombre masculino social

share price cotización nombre femenino

share ['ʃɛr] v, shared ; sharing vt

1) apportion: dividir, repartir

2) : compartir

they share a room: comparten una habitación

share vi

: compartir

share n

1) portion: parte f, porción f

one's fair share: lo que le corresponde a uno

2) : acción f (en una compañía)

to hold shares: tener acciones

share

n.

• acción (Banca) s.f.

• aportación s.f.

• compartir s.m.

• cuota s.f.

• cupo s.m.

• escote s.m.

• lote s.m.

• parte s.f.

• participación s.f.

• quiñón s.m.

v.

• compartir v.

• dividir v.

• participar v.

• partir v.

• repartir v.

• sobrellevar v.

ʃer, ʃeə(r)
I

noun

1) c ( portion) parte f

how much is my share of the bill? — ¿cuánto me toca pagar a mí?

she must take her share of the blame — debe aceptar que tiene parte de la culpa

he's had his share of bad luck — ha tenido bastante mala suerte or su buena cuota de mala suerte

I only want my fair share — sólo quiero lo que en justicia me corresponde

to work on shares — (AmE) trabajar como socios

2) (Busn, Fin)

a) ( held by partner) (no pl) participación f

I own a half share in a fishing boat — soy copropietario de un pesquero

b) c ( held by shareholder) acción f

to hold shares in a company — tener* acciones en una compañía; (before n)

share capital — capital m social

share certificate — (título m or certificado m de) acción f

share index — índice m de cotización en bolsa

share prices — cotización f de las acciones

II
1.

transitive verb

1)

a) ( use jointly)

to share something (WITH somebody) — compartir algo (con alguien)

b) ( have in common) \<\<interest/opinion\>\> compartir; \<\<characteristics\>\> tener* en común

2)

a) ( divide) dividir

we agreed to share all expenses — decidimos compartir todos los gastos

b) ( communicate) \<\<experience/knowledge\>\> intercambiar

I'd like to share my feelings with you — me gustaría expresarles mis sentimientos

2.

vi

a) ( use jointly) compartir

you may have to share with somebody — puede ser que tengas que compartir la habitación (or el despacho etc) con alguien

to share and share alike — compartir las cosas

b) ( have a part)

to share IN something — compartir algo, participar de algo

Phrasal Verbs:

- share out

I [ʃɛǝ(r)]
1. N

1) (=portion) parte f, porción f

a share of or in the profits — una proporción de las ganancias

how much will my share be? — ¿cuánto me corresponderá a mí?

your share is £5 — te tocan 5 libras

• to do one's (fair) share (of sth) — hacer lo que a uno le toca or corresponde (de algo)

he doesn't do his share — no hace todo lo que debiera, no hace todo lo que le toca or corresponde

• to have a share in sth — participar en algo

we've had our share of misfortunes — hemos sufrido bastante infortunio, hemos sufrido lo nuestro

• market share — cuota f del mercado

• to take a share in doing sth — hacer su parte en algo

- the lion's share

2) (Econ) acción f

2. VT

1) (=split, divide) [+ resource, benefit] repartir, dividir, partir

would you like to share the bottle with me? — ¿quieres compartir la botella conmigo?

a shared room — una habitación compartida

2) (=accept equally) [+ duty, responsibility, task] compartir, corresponsabilizarse de

to share the blame — [one person] aceptar su parte de culpa; [more than one person] corresponsabilizarse de la culpa

3) (=have in common) [+ characteristic, quality] compartir, tener en común; [+ experience, opinion] compartir

two nations who share a common language — dos naciones que tienen en común or comparten la misma lengua

I do not share that view — no comparto ese criterio

4) (=tell, relate) [+ piece of news, thought] contar, compartir, hacer partícipe de frm ( with a)

it can be beneficial to share your feelings with someone you trust — puede resultar beneficioso compartir or contar tus sentimientos a alguien de confianza

3.

VI compartir ( with con)

I share with three other women — (room, flat etc) vivo con otras tres mujeres

to share in sth — participar en algo

- share and share alike

4.

CPD

share capital N — capital m social en acciones

share certificate N — (certificado m or título m de una) acción f

share earnings NPL — dividendos mpl

share index N — índice m de la Bolsa

share issue N — emisión f de acciones

share offer N — oferta f de acciones

share option N — stock option f, opción f sobre acciones

share ownership N — propiedad f de acciones

share premium N — prima f de emisión

share price N — precio m de las acciones

- share out

II

[ʃɛǝ(r)]
N (Agr) (=ploughshare) reja f
* * *
[ʃer, ʃeə(r)]
I

noun

1) c ( portion) parte f

how much is my share of the bill? — ¿cuánto me toca pagar a mí?

she must take her share of the blame — debe aceptar que tiene parte de la culpa

he's had his share of bad luck — ha tenido bastante mala suerte or su buena cuota de mala suerte

I only want my fair share — sólo quiero lo que en justicia me corresponde

to work on shares — (AmE) trabajar como socios

2) (Busn, Fin)

a) ( held by partner) (no pl) participación f

I own a half share in a fishing boat — soy copropietario de un pesquero

b) c ( held by shareholder) acción f

to hold shares in a company — tener* acciones en una compañía; (before n)

share capital — capital m social

share certificate — (título m or certificado m de) acción f

share index — índice m de cotización en bolsa

share prices — cotización f de las acciones

II
1.

transitive verb

1)

a) ( use jointly)

to share something (WITH somebody) — compartir algo (con alguien)

b) ( have in common) \<\<interest/opinion\>\> compartir; \<\<characteristics\>\> tener* en común

2)

a) ( divide) dividir

we agreed to share all expenses — decidimos compartir todos los gastos

b) ( communicate) \<\<experience/knowledge\>\> intercambiar

I'd like to share my feelings with you — me gustaría expresarles mis sentimientos

2.

vi

a) ( use jointly) compartir

you may have to share with somebody — puede ser que tengas que compartir la habitación (or el despacho etc) con alguien

to share and share alike — compartir las cosas

b) ( have a part)

to share IN something — compartir algo, participar de algo

Phrasal Verbs:

- share out

English-spanish dictionary > share
14 level

1.
['levl]noun

1) Höhe, die; (storey) Etage, die; (fig.): (steady state) Niveau, das; (fig.): (basis) Ebene, die

the water rose to the level of the doorstep — das Wasser stieg bis zur Türschwelle

be on a level [with somebody/something] — sich auf gleicher od. einer Höhe [mit jemandem/etwas] befinden; (fig.) auf dem gleichen Niveau sein [wie jmd./etwas]

on the level — (fig. coll.) ehrlich

find one's level — (fig.) seinen Platz finden

2) (height)

at waist/rooftop etc. level — in Taillen-/Dachhöhe usw.

3) (relative amount)

sugar/alcohol level — [Blut]zucker-/Alkoholspiegel, der

noise level — Geräuschpegel, der

4) (social, moral, or intellectual plane) Niveau, das; (degree of achievement etc.) Grad, der (of an + Dat.)

talks at the highest level [of government] — Gespräche auf höchster [Regierungs]ebene

5) (of computer game) Level, der

6) (instrument to test horizontal) Wasserwaage, die
2. adjective
1) waagerecht; flach [Land]; eben [Boden, Land]

a level spoonful of flour — ein gestrichener Löffel Mehl

the picture is not level — das Bild hängt nicht gerade

2) (on a level)

be level [with something/somebody] — auf gleicher Höhe [mit etwas/jemandem] sein; (fig.) [mit etwas/jemandem] gleichauf liegen

the two pictures are not level — die beiden Bilder hängen nicht gleich hoch

draw/keep level with a rival — mit einem Gegner gleichziehen/auf gleicher Höhe bleiben

3) (fig.): (steady, even) ausgeglichen [Leben, Temperament]; ausgewogen [Stil]

keep a level head — einen kühlen Kopf bewahren

4)

do one's level best — (coll.) sein Möglichstes tun
3. transitive verb,
(Brit.) - ll-

1) (make

level 2 a —) ebnen

2) (aim) richten [Blick, Gewehr, Rakete] (at, against auf + Akk.); (fig.) richten [Kritik usw.] (at, against gegen); erheben [Anklage, Vorwurf] (at, against gegen)

3) (raze) dem Erdboden gleichmachen [Stadt, Gebäude]

Phrasal Verbs:

- academic.ru/42629/level_off">level off

- level out

* * *
['levl] 1. noun
1) (height, position, strength, rank etc: The level of the river rose; a high level of intelligence.) das Niveau

2) (a horizontal division or floor: the third level of the multi-storey car park.) das Stockwerk

3) (a kind of instrument for showing whether a surface is level: a spirit level.) die Wasserwaage

4) (a flat, smooth surface or piece of land: It was difficult running uphill but he could run fast on the level.) ebene Fläche
2. adjective
1) (flat, even, smooth or horizontal: a level surface; a level spoonful (= an amount which just fills the spoon to the top of the sides).) eben

2) (of the same height, standard etc: The top of the kitchen sink is level with the window-sill; The scores of the two teams are level.) gleich

3) (steady, even and not rising or falling much: a calm, level voice.) gleichmäßig
3. verb
1) (to make flat, smooth or horizontal: He levelled the soil.) ebnen

2) (to make equal: His goal levelled the scores of the two teams.) gleichmachen

3) ((usually with at) to aim (a gun etc): He levelled his pistol at the target.) richten

4) (to pull down: The bulldozer levelled the block of flats.) dem Erdboden gleichmachen

•

- levelness
- level crossing
- level-headed
- do one's level best
- level off
- level out
- on a level with
- on the level
* * *

lev·el

[ˈlev^əl]

I. adj

1. (horizontal) horizontal, waag(e)recht

the picture isn't \level das Bild hängt nicht gerade

2. (flat) eben

\level ground ebenes Gelände

3. pred (at an equal height)

▪ to be \level [with sth] auf gleicher Höhe [mit etw dat sein]

the amounts in both glasses were \level [with each other] beide Gläser waren gleich voll

the lamps are not \level [with each other] die Lampen hängen nicht gleich hoch [o nicht auf gleicher Höhe

4. (abreast)

to keep \level with sth mit etw dat mithalten

last year production could not keep \level with demand im letzten Jahr konnte die Produktion nicht die Nachfrage decken

to keep sth \level with sth etw auf dem gleichen Niveau wie etw dat halten

the unions are fighting to keep wages \level with inflation die Gewerkschaften kämpfen um die Angleichung der Löhne und Gehälter an die Inflationsrate

5. pred esp BRIT, AUS (in a race) gleichauf; (equal in points) punktegleich; (equal in standard) gleich gut

the scores were \level at half time zur Halbzeit stand es unentschieden

the two students are about \level in ability die beiden Studenten sind etwa gleich gut

to draw \level with sb/sth jdn/etw einholen

6. attr (to the edge) gestrichen

a \level cupful of flour eine Tasse [voll] Mehl

a \level spoonful of sugar ein gestrichener Löffel Zucker

7. (calm) voice ruhig; look fest

to give sb a \level look jdn mit festem Blick ansehen

in a \level tone ohne die Stimme zu heben

to keep a \level head einen kühlen [o klaren] Kopf bewahren

in a \level voice mit ruhiger Stimme

8.

▶ to do one's \level best sein Möglichstes [o alles Menschenmögliche] tun

▶ to start on a \level playing field gleiche [Start]bedingungen [o Voraussetzungen] haben

II. n

1. (quantity) Niveau nt; (height) Höhe f

at eye \level in Augenhöhe

oil \level AUTO Ölstand m

above/below sea \level über/unter dem Meeresspiegel

water \level Pegelstand m, Wasserstand m

to be on a \level [with sb/sth] BRIT, AUS [mit jdm/etw] auf gleicher Höhe sein

2. (extent) Ausmaß nt

inflation is going to rise 2% from its present \level die Inflationsrate wird [gegenüber dem derzeitigen Stand] um 2 % steigen

\level of alcohol abuse Ausmaß nt des Alkoholmissbrauchs

low-/high-\level radiation niedrige/hohe Strahlung

sugar \level in the blood Blutzuckerspiegel m

\level of customer satisfaction Zufriedenheitswert m

\level of motivation Motivationsgrad m

\level of productivity Leistungsniveau nt

\level of taxation Steuerniveau nt

3. (storey) Stockwerk nt

ground \level Erdgeschoss nt, Parterre nt SCHWEIZ

at [or on] \level four im vierten Stock

4. no pl (rank) Ebene f

at government[al] \level auf Regierungsebene

at a higher/lower \level auf höherer/niedrigerer Ebene

at the local/national/regional \level auf kommunaler/nationaler/regionaler Ebene

5. (standard, stage, proficiency) Niveau nt

your explanation must be at a \level that the children can understand du musst es so erklären, dass die Kinder dich verstehen

\level of training Ausbildungsstand m

advanced/intermediate \level fortgeschrittenes/mittleres Niveau; SCH Ober-/Mittelstufe f

to reach a high \level ein hohes Niveau erreichen

to take sth to a higher \level etw verbessern [o auf ein höheres Niveau bringen]

to be on a \level [with sb/sth] BRIT, AUS gleich gut sein [wie jd/etw]

to bring sth down to sb's \level etw auf jds Niveau bringen

6. (social, intellectual, moral) Niveau nt

intellectual \level geistiges Niveau

to sink to sb's \level sich akk auf jds Niveau hinabbegeben

I would never sink to the \level of taking bribes ich würde nie so tief sinken und mich bestechen lassen

7. (perspective, meaning) Ebene f

at a deeper \level auf einer tieferen Ebene

on a moral/practical/another \level aus moralischer/praktischer/anderer Sicht

on a personal \level auf persönlicher Ebene

on a serious \level ernsthaft

8. BRIT (flat land)

on the \level ebenerdig

9. esp AM (spirit level) Wasserwaage f

10. TELEC Pegel m

11.

▶ to find one's own \level seinen Platz in der Welt finden

▶ to be on the \level ( fam) ehrlich [o aufrichtig] sein

this offer is on the \level dies ist ein faires Angebot

III. vt

< BRIT - ll- or AM usu -l->

1.

▪ to \level sth (flatten) ground etw [ein]ebnen [o planieren]; wood etw [ab]schmirgeln; (raze) building, town etw dem Erdboden gleichmachen

to \level sth to the ground etw dem Erdboden gleichmachen

2. (equal)

to \level the match/score den Ausgleich erzielen

3. (direct)

to \level a pistol/rifle at sb eine Pistole/ein Gewehr auf jdn richten; ( fig)

to \level accusations/charges against [or at] sb Beschuldigungen/Anklage gegen jdn erheben

to \level criticism against [or at] sb an jdm Kritik üben

we don't understand the criticism \levelled at the government wir verstehen die Kritik an der Regierung nicht

* * *
['levl]
1. adj

1) (= flat) ground, surface, floor eben; spoonful gestrichen

try to keep the boat level — versuchen Sie, das Boot waagerecht zu halten

the glider maintained a level course — das Segelflugzeug behielt die gleiche Flughöhe bei

2) (= at the same height) auf gleicher Höhe (with mit); (= parallel) parallel (with zu)

the bedroom is level with the ground — das Schlafzimmer liegt ebenerdig or zu ebener Erde

3) (= equal) gleichauf; (fig) gleich gut

the two runners are absolutely or dead level — die beiden Läufer liegen or sind genau auf gleicher Höhe

Jones was almost level with the winner — Jones kam fast auf gleiche Höhe mit dem Sieger

the two teams are level in the league — die beiden Mannschaften haben den gleichen Tabellenstand

level race — Kopf-an-Kopf-Rennen nt

4) (= steady) tone of voice ruhig; (= well-balanced) ausgeglichen; judgement abgewogen, ausgewogen; head kühl

to have/keep a level head — einen kühlen Kopf haben/bewahren

5)

I'll do my level best (Brit) — ich werde mein Möglichstes tun

2. adv

level with — in Höhe (+gen)

it should lie level with... —

the pipe runs level with the ground (= parallel) — das Rohr verläuft zu ebener Erde das Rohr verläuft parallel zum Boden

they're running absolutely level — sie laufen auf genau gleicher Höhe

the value of the shares stayed level for some time — der Wert der Aktien blieb für einige Zeit gleich

to draw level with sb — jdn einholen, mit jdm gleichziehen; (in league etc)

the two runners drew level on the last lap — in der letzten Runde zogen die beiden Läufer gleich

3. n

1) (= instrument) Wasserwaage f

2) (= altitude) Höhe f

on a level (with) — auf gleicher Höhe (mit)

water always finds its own level — Wasser kehrt immer in die Waagerechte zurück

at eye level — in Augenhöhe

the trees were very tall, almost at roof level — die Bäume waren sehr hoch, sie reichten fast bis zum Dach

to be on a level with the roof — in Dachhöhe sein

3) (= flat place) ebene Fläche, ebenes Stück

4) (= storey) Etage f, Stockwerk nt

the house is on four levels — das Haus hat vier Etagen

5) (= position on scale) Ebene f; (social, intellectual etc) Niveau nt

they're on a different level — sie haben ein unterschiedliches Niveau

to descend or come down to that level — auf ein so tiefes Niveau absinken

he expects everyone to come down to his level — er erwartet von jedem, dass er sich auf sein Niveau herabbegibt

she tried to go beyond her natural level of ability — sie versuchte, ihre natürlichen Grenzen zu überschreiten

to be on a level with — auf gleichem Niveau sein wie

they are on a level as far as salaries are concerned — sie bekommen das gleiche Gehalt

he tried to raise the level of the conversation — er versuchte, der Unterhaltung etwas mehr Niveau zu geben

if profit stays at the same level — wenn sich der Gewinn auf dem gleichen Stand hält

the pound has been left to find its own level — der Pfundkurs wurde freigegeben, um seinen natürlichen Stand zu erreichen

the rising level of inflation —

he maintains his high level of excellence — er hält sein äußerst hohes Niveau

a high level of intelligence — ein hoher Intelligenzgrad

a high level of interest — sehr großes Interesse

a high level of support —

a high level of civilization the very high level of production — eine hohe Kulturstufe das hohe Produktionsniveau

the higher levels of academic research — die höheren Stufen der wissenschaftlichen Forschung

the talks were held at a very high level — die Gespräche fanden auf hoher Ebene statt

a low level of sales — ein sehr geringer Absatz

he reduces everything to the commercial level — er reduziert alles auf eine rein kommerzielle Basis

on an intellectual level —

on the moral level — aus moralischer Sicht

on a purely personal level — rein persönlich, auf rein persönlicher Ebene

6)

(= amount, degree) a high level of hydrogen — ein hoher Wasserstoffanteil

the level of alcohol in the blood — der Alkoholspiegel im Blut

level of consciousness — Bewusstseinsebene f

cholesterol level — Cholesterinspiegel m

the level of violence — das Ausmaß der Gewalttätigkeit

7)

I guess you're on the level — du bist wohl schon in Ordnung (inf)

is he on the level? — meint er es ehrlich?

to be on the level with sb — jdm gegenüber ehrlich or aufrichtig sein

4. vt

1) ground, site etc einebnen, planieren; building abreißen; town dem Erdboden gleichmachen

to level sth to the ground — etw dem Erdboden gleichmachen

2) blow versetzen, verpassen (inf) (at sb jdm); weapon richten (at auf +acc); accusation erheben (at gegen); remark richten (at gegen); criticism üben (at an +dat)

to level a charge against sb — Anklage gegen jdn erheben, jdn anklagen

3) (SPORT)

to level the match — den Ausgleich erzielen

to level the score — gleichziehen

5. vi (inf)

to level with sb — jdm keinen Quatsch or Scheiß erzählen (inf)

I'll level with you — ich werd ehrlich mit dir sein

* * *

level [ˈlevl]

A s

1. TECH Libelle f, Wasserwaage f

2. TECH, Landvermessung:

a) Nivellierinstrument n

b) Höhen-, Niveaumessung f

3. Ebene f ( auch GEOG), ebene Fläche

4. Horizontalebene f, Horizontale f, Waag(e)rechte f

5. Höhe f ( auch GEOG), (Wasser- etc) Spiegel m, (-)Stand m, (-)Pegel m:

level of sound Geräuschpegel, Tonstärke f;

be on a level with

a) auf gleicher Höhe sein mit,

b) genauso hoch sein wie ( → A 6);

on the level umg in Ordnung, ehrlich, anständig

6. fig (auch geistiges) Niveau, Level m, Stand m, Grad m, Stufe f:

level of employment Beschäftigungsstand;

high level of technical skill hohes technisches Niveau;

level of performance SPORT Leistungsstand, -niveau;

low production level niedriger Produktionsstand;

have fallen to the lowest level seinen niedrigsten Stand erreicht haben;

put o.s. on the level of others sich auf das Niveau anderer Leute begeben;

sink to the level of cut-throat practices auf das Niveau von Halsabschneidern absinken;

find one’s (own) level seinen Platz finden (an den man gehört);

be on a ( oder an equal) level with auf dem gleichen Niveau oder auf der gleichen Stufe stehen wie, jemandem ebenbürtig sein ( → A 5);

keep sth at its present level etwas auf seinem gegenwärtigen Stand halten

7. (politische etc) Ebene:

at government level auf Regierungsebene;

a conference on the highest level eine Konferenz auf höchster Ebene;

on a ministerial level auf Ministerebene

8. Bergbau:

a) Sohle f

b) Sohlenstrecke f

B adj (adv levelly)

1. eben (Straße etc):

one level teaspoonful of salt ein gestrichener Teelöffel Salz;

level playing field gleiche Chancen pl für alle, Chancengleichheit f

2. waag(e)recht, horizontal

3. gleich (auch fig):

level crossing Br schienengleicher (Bahn)Übergang;

it was level pegging between them SPORT etc Br umg sie lagen gleichauf;

it was a level position (besonders Fußball) es war gleiche Höhe;

be level on points SPORT etc punktgleich sein;

be level with

a) auf gleicher Höhe sein mit,

b) genauso hoch sein wie,

c) fig auf dem gleichen Niveau oder auf der gleichen Stufe stehen wie;

make level with the ground dem Erdboden gleichmachen;

draw level SPORT ausgleichen;

draw level with sb jemanden einholen

4. a) gleichmäßig:

level stress LING schwebende Betonung

b) ausgeglichen (Rennen etc)

5. do one’s level best sein Möglichstes tun

6. gleichbleibend (Temperatur etc)

7. vernünftig

8. ruhig:

have (keep) a level head einen kühlen Kopf haben (bewahren), sich nicht aus der Ruhe bringen lassen;

give sb a level look jemanden ruhig oder fest anschauen

C v/t prät und pperf -eled, besonders Br -elled

1. a) auch level off (ein)ebnen, planieren

b) auch level to ( oder with) the ground eine Stadt etc dem Erdboden gleichmachen

2. jemanden zu Boden schlagen

3. auch level off ( oder out) fig

a) gleichmachen, nivellieren:

level matters ( oder the score) SPORT ausgleichen, den Gleichstand herstellen oder erzielen

b) Unterschiede beseitigen, ausgleichen

4. a) eine Waffe richten, das Gewehr anlegen ( beide:

at auf akk):

level one’s rifle at sb auf jemanden anlegen

b) fig (at, against) Anschuldigungen erheben (gegen), Kritik üben (an dat):

his criticism was level(l)led against me seine Kritik richtete sich gegen mich

5. Landvermessung: nivellieren

D v/i

1. die Waffe richten, (das Gewehr) anlegen ( beide:

at auf akk)

2. level with umg offen reden mit, ehrlich sein zu

* * *
1.
['levl]noun

1) Höhe, die; (storey) Etage, die; (fig.): (steady state) Niveau, das; (fig.): (basis) Ebene, die

the water rose to the level of the doorstep — das Wasser stieg bis zur Türschwelle

be on a level [with somebody/something] — sich auf gleicher od. einer Höhe [mit jemandem/etwas] befinden; (fig.) auf dem gleichen Niveau sein [wie jmd./etwas]

on the level — (fig. coll.) ehrlich

find one's level — (fig.) seinen Platz finden

2) (height)

at waist/rooftop etc. level — in Taillen-/Dachhöhe usw.

3) (relative amount)

sugar/alcohol level — [Blut]zucker-/Alkoholspiegel, der

noise level — Geräuschpegel, der

4) (social, moral, or intellectual plane) Niveau, das; (degree of achievement etc.) Grad, der (of an + Dat.)

talks at the highest level [of government] — Gespräche auf höchster [Regierungs]ebene

5) (of computer game) Level, der

6) (instrument to test horizontal) Wasserwaage, die
2. adjective
1) waagerecht; flach [Land]; eben [Boden, Land]

a level spoonful of flour — ein gestrichener Löffel Mehl

the picture is not level — das Bild hängt nicht gerade

2) (on a level)

be level [with something/somebody] — auf gleicher Höhe [mit etwas/jemandem] sein; (fig.) [mit etwas/jemandem] gleichauf liegen

the two pictures are not level — die beiden Bilder hängen nicht gleich hoch

draw/keep level with a rival — mit einem Gegner gleichziehen/auf gleicher Höhe bleiben

3) (fig.): (steady, even) ausgeglichen [Leben, Temperament]; ausgewogen [Stil]

keep a level head — einen kühlen Kopf bewahren

4)

do one's level best — (coll.) sein Möglichstes tun
3. transitive verb,
(Brit.) - ll-

1) (make

level 2 a —) ebnen

2) (aim) richten [Blick, Gewehr, Rakete] (at, against auf + Akk.); (fig.) richten [Kritik usw.] (at, against gegen); erheben [Anklage, Vorwurf] (at, against gegen)

3) (raze) dem Erdboden gleichmachen [Stadt, Gebäude]

Phrasal Verbs:

- level off

- level out

* * *

adj.

ausgeglichen (Sport) adj.

eben adj.

gleichmäßig adj.

waagerecht adj. n.

Ebene -n f.

Höhe -n f.

Level -- n.

Niveau -s n.

Pegel -- (Wasser-) m.

Pegel -- n.

Pegelstand m.

Schwellwert m.

Stand ¨-e m.

Stufe -n f. v.

Unterschiede beseitigen ausdr.

ausgleichen v.

ebnen v.

einebnen v.

gleichmachen v.

nivellieren v.

planieren v.

English-german dictionary > level
15 ASSIST

1) Военный термин: Army system for standard intelligence support terminals, Automated Information System Security Incident Support Team, Automated Special Security Information System, Automated Special Security Terminals, automated systems security incident support team

2) Сокращение: Automated Systems Security Incident Support Team (Defense Information Systems Agency)

3) Университет: Active Students Serving Instructing Socializing Together, Advanced Students Supporting Instructing And Servicing Technology, Australian Social Skills For International Students Training

4) Вычислительная техника: Automated Special Security Information System Terminal (Mil., USA)

5) Должность: Assistant Superintendent For School Improvement Supervision And Training

Универсальный англо-русский словарь > ASSIST
16 assist

1) Военный термин: Army system for standard intelligence support terminals, Automated Information System Security Incident Support Team, Automated Special Security Information System, Automated Special Security Terminals, automated systems security incident support team

2) Сокращение: Automated Systems Security Incident Support Team (Defense Information Systems Agency)

3) Университет: Active Students Serving Instructing Socializing Together, Advanced Students Supporting Instructing And Servicing Technology, Australian Social Skills For International Students Training

4) Вычислительная техника: Automated Special Security Information System Terminal (Mil., USA)

5) Должность: Assistant Superintendent For School Improvement Supervision And Training

Универсальный англо-русский словарь > assist
17 class

I [klɑːs] [AE klæs]
nome

1) sociol. classe f., ceto m.

the working classes — la classe operaia

2) (group of students) classe f.; (lesson) corso m. (in di)

in class — in classe

to give a class — tenere un corso

to take a class — BE tenere un corso; AE seguire un corso

3) AE (year group) = gruppo di studenti laureati nello stesso anno

4) (category) classe f., categoria f.

to be in a class of one's own o by oneself essere in una categoria a parte, essere più unico che raro; she's in a different class from him non c'è confronto tra lei e lui; he's not in the same class as her — non è al suo stesso livello

5) colloq. (elegance) classe f.

6) (travelling) classe f.

to travel first, second class — viaggiare in prima, seconda classe

7) BE univ. = ciascuno dei livelli di valutazione del profitto di uno studente per un anno accademico o per l'asse gnazione del voto di laurea

a first-, second-class degree — = laurea con lode, con una buona votazione

8) biol. mat. classe f.
II [klɑːs] [AE klæs]
verbo transitivo

to class sb., sth. as — classificare qcn., qcs. come

* * *
1. plural - classes; noun
1) (a group of people or things that are alike in some way: The dog won first prize in its class in the dog show.) categoria

2) ((the system according to which people belong to) one of a number of economic/social groups: the upper class; the middle class; the working class; ( also adjective) the class system.) classe

3) (a grade or rank (of merit): musicians of a high class.) classe

4) (a number of students or scholars taught together: John and I are in the same class.) classe

5) (a school lesson or college lecture etc: a French class.) lezione

6) ((American) a course or series of lectures, often leading to an examination.) corso
2. verb
(to regard as being of a certain type: He classes all women as stupid.) classificare

- classmate
- class-room
* * *
I [klɑːs] [AE klæs]
nome

1) sociol. classe f., ceto m.

the working classes — la classe operaia

2) (group of students) classe f.; (lesson) corso m. (in di)

in class — in classe

to give a class — tenere un corso

to take a class — BE tenere un corso; AE seguire un corso

3) AE (year group) = gruppo di studenti laureati nello stesso anno

4) (category) classe f., categoria f.

to be in a class of one's own o by oneself essere in una categoria a parte, essere più unico che raro; she's in a different class from him non c'è confronto tra lei e lui; he's not in the same class as her — non è al suo stesso livello

5) colloq. (elegance) classe f.

6) (travelling) classe f.

to travel first, second class — viaggiare in prima, seconda classe

7) BE univ. = ciascuno dei livelli di valutazione del profitto di uno studente per un anno accademico o per l'asse gnazione del voto di laurea

a first-, second-class degree — = laurea con lode, con una buona votazione

8) biol. mat. classe f.
II [klɑːs] [AE klæs]
verbo transitivo

to class sb., sth. as — classificare qcn., qcs. come

English-Italian dictionary > class
18 SEE

1) Общая лексика: Юго-Восточная Европа

2) Американизм: Social Environmental And Ethical

3) Военный термин: School of Electrical Engineering, Society of Explosives Engineers, Softcopy Exploitation Environment, Standard External Evaluation, Supplementary Electronic Equipment, System Engineering and Evaluation, senior electrical engineer, small emplacement excavator, strategic bomber enhancement, systems effectiveness evaluation, systems efficiency expert

4) Техника: senior electronics engineer, signal experiments establishment

5) Математика: Standard Error Of Estimate

6) Метеорология: Static Exchange Evaluation

7) Биржевой термин: Stock Earnings Escalator, Swiss Electronic Exchange

8) Сокращение: School of Electronic Engineering, Single Event Effects, Systems Effectiveness Engineering

9) Университет: Science Education And Ethics, Selection, Education, and Enrollment, Students For Energy Education

10) Вычислительная техника: Software Engineering Environments, Systems Equipment Engineering

11) Экология: Society of Environmental Engineers

12) Энергетика: Static Exitation Equipment

13) Деловая лексика: Search Evaluate Execute, Social And Environmental Entrepreneurs, Social Environmental And Economic, Support Encourage And Enhance

14) Образование: Science And Everyday Experiences, Senior Educational Experience, Signing Exact English, Successful Education Endeavors, Summer Enrichment Experience, Summer Exploratory Experience, Support Education And Encouragement

15) Сетевые технологии: Software Engineering Environment

16) Программирование: Binary Painter Operator

17) Макаров: secondary electron emission

18) Общественная организация: Surgical Eye Expeditions

19) Должность: Society Economy And Environment

20) NYSE. Sealed Air Corporation

21) Аэропорты: Gillespie Field, San Diego, California USA

22) НАСА: Space Environments Ecovillage

Универсальный англо-русский словарь > SEE
19 see

1) Общая лексика: Юго-Восточная Европа

2) Американизм: Social Environmental And Ethical

3) Военный термин: School of Electrical Engineering, Society of Explosives Engineers, Softcopy Exploitation Environment, Standard External Evaluation, Supplementary Electronic Equipment, System Engineering and Evaluation, senior electrical engineer, small emplacement excavator, strategic bomber enhancement, systems effectiveness evaluation, systems efficiency expert

4) Техника: senior electronics engineer, signal experiments establishment

5) Математика: Standard Error Of Estimate

6) Метеорология: Static Exchange Evaluation

7) Биржевой термин: Stock Earnings Escalator, Swiss Electronic Exchange

8) Сокращение: School of Electronic Engineering, Single Event Effects, Systems Effectiveness Engineering

9) Университет: Science Education And Ethics, Selection, Education, and Enrollment, Students For Energy Education

10) Вычислительная техника: Software Engineering Environments, Systems Equipment Engineering

11) Экология: Society of Environmental Engineers

12) Энергетика: Static Exitation Equipment

13) Деловая лексика: Search Evaluate Execute, Social And Environmental Entrepreneurs, Social Environmental And Economic, Support Encourage And Enhance

14) Образование: Science And Everyday Experiences, Senior Educational Experience, Signing Exact English, Successful Education Endeavors, Summer Enrichment Experience, Summer Exploratory Experience, Support Education And Encouragement

15) Сетевые технологии: Software Engineering Environment

16) Программирование: Binary Painter Operator

17) Макаров: secondary electron emission

18) Общественная организация: Surgical Eye Expeditions

19) Должность: Society Economy And Environment

20) NYSE. Sealed Air Corporation

21) Аэропорты: Gillespie Field, San Diego, California USA

22) НАСА: Space Environments Ecovillage

Универсальный англо-русский словарь > see
20 class

1. noun
1) (group in society) Gesellschaftsschicht, die; Klasse, die (Soziol.); (system) Klassensystem, das

2) (Educ.) Klasse, die; (Sch.): (lesson) Stunde, die; (Univ.): (seminar etc.) Übung, die

a French class — eine Französischstunde

3) (group [according to quality]) Klasse, die

be in a class by itself or on its own/of one's own or by oneself — eine Klasse für sich sein

4) (coll.): (quality) Klasse, die (ugs.)
2. transitive verb
einordnen

class something as something — etwas als etwas einstufen

* * *
1. plural - classes; noun
1) (a group of people or things that are alike in some way: The dog won first prize in its class in the dog show.) die Gruppe

2) ((the system according to which people belong to) one of a number of economic/social groups: the upper class; the middle class; the working class; ( also adjective) the class system.) die Schicht

3) (a grade or rank (of merit): musicians of a high class.) der Rang

4) (a number of students or scholars taught together: John and I are in the same class.) die Klasse

5) (a school lesson or college lecture etc: a French class.) die Unterrichtsstunde

6) ((American) a course or series of lectures, often leading to an examination.)
2. verb
(to regard as being of a certain type: He classes all women as stupid.) einstufen

- academic.ru/13277/classmate">classmate
- class-room
* * *

class

[klɑ:s, AM klæs]

I. n

<pl -es>

1. + sing/pl vb (pupils) [Schul]klasse f

2. (lesson) [Unterrichts]stunde f; (teaching) Unterricht m kein pl; SPORT Kurs[us] m

\classes have been cancelled today heute fällt der Unterricht aus

to go to an aerobics \class einen Aerobic-Kurs besuchen, in einen Aerobic-Kurs gehen

to go to evening \class[es] einen Abendkurs besuchen

to attend [or go to] \class[es] am Unterricht teilnehmen

to talk in \class während des Unterrichts reden

to take [or teach] a German/civil law \class Deutsch/Zivilrecht unterrichten; UNIV (lecture) eine Deutschvorlesung/Vorlesung zum Zivilrecht [ab]halten; (seminar) ein Deutschseminar/Seminar in Zivilrecht [ab]halten; (course) eine Deutsch-Übung/Übung in Zivilrecht [ab]halten

3. + sing/pl vb AM (graduates) Jahrgang m

the \class of 1975/1980 der Jahrgang 1975/1980

4. + sing/pl vb (stratum) Klasse f, Schicht f

the middle/upper \class die Mittel-/Oberschicht

the working \class die Arbeiterklasse

5. no pl (social membership) Klassenzugehörigkeit f

6. (category, quality) Klasse f

shall I post the letter first or second \class? BRIT soll ich den Brief als Erste- oder Zweite-Klasse-Sendung aufgeben?

first \class hotel Erste Klasse [o First Class] Hotel nt

to travel first/second \class erste[r]/zweite[r] Klasse fahren

C\class A/I COMM Handelsklasse f A/I

all the vegetables we sell are \class A wir verkaufen nur Gemüse der Handelsklasse A

7. BRIT, AUS (diploma) Prädikat nt, SCHWEIZ a. Note f

what \class did you get? mit welchem Prädikat hast du [dein Examen] bestanden?

a first-\class honours degree ein Prädikatsexamen nt

a second-\class honours degree ein Examen nt mit dem Prädikat ‚gut‘

8. no pl (style) Klasse, f

to have [no] \class [keine] Klasse haben fam

9. BIOL, ZOOL Klasse f

10. AM FIN Aktiengattung f

11. LAW

C\class F charge Belastung f in Abteilung 6 fachspr

12.

▶ to be in a \class of one's own [or by oneself] eine Klasse für sich akk sein

▶ to be out of sb's \class jdm haushoch überlegen sein, um Klassen besser [als jd] sein fam

II. adj attr, inv (excellent) erstklassig, klasse fam

world \class player Weltklassespieler(in) m(f)

III. vt

▪ to \class sb/sth [as sth] jdn/etw [als etw akk] einstufen

when I travel by bus I'm still \classed as a child wenn ich mit dem Bus fahre, gelte ich noch als Kind

I would \class her among the top ten novelists ich würde sie zu den zehn besten Schriftstellern zählen

* * *
[klAːs]
1. n

1) (= group, division) Klasse f

what class are you travelling? — in welcher Klasse reisen Sie?

he's not in the same class as his brother — sein Bruder ist eine Klasse besser

they're just not in the same class — man kann sie einfach nicht vergleichen

in a class by himself/itself or of his/its own — weitaus der/das Beste

2) (= social rank) gesellschaftliche Stellung, Stand m (dated), Klasse f (SOCIOL)

the ruling class — die herrschende Klasse, die Herrschenden

considerations of class — Standeserwägungen pl (dated), Klassengesichtspunkte pl

it was class not ability that determined who... —

what class is he from? — aus welcher Schicht or Klasse kommt er?

are you ashamed of your class? — schämst du dich deines Standes (dated) or deiner Herkunft?

class and educational background — Klassenzugehörigkeit und Erziehung

we were talking about class — wir sprachen über die gesellschaftlichen Klassen

3) (SCH, UNIV) Klasse f

I don't like her classes — ihr Unterricht gefällt mir nicht

you should prepare each class in advance — du solltest dich auf jede (Unterrichts)stunde vorbereiten

to take a Latin class — Latein unterrichten or geben; (Univ) ein Lateinseminar etc abhalten

an evening class — ein Abendkurs m

eating in class — Essen nt während des Unterrichts

the class of 1980 — der Jahrgang 1980, die Schul-/Universitätsabgänger etc des Jahres 1980

4) (BOT, ZOOL) Klasse f

5) (Brit UNIV of degree) Prädikat nt

a first-class degree — ein Prädikatsexamen nt

second-/third-class degree — ≈ Prädikat Gut/Befriedigend

6) (inf: quality, tone) Stil m

to have class — Stil haben, etwas hermachen (inf); (person) Format haben

that gives the place a bit of class — das macht (doch) ( et)was her

I see we've got a bit of class in tonight, two guys in dinner jackets — heute Abend haben wir ja vornehme or exklusive Gäste, zwei Typen im Smoking

2. adj
(inf: excellent) erstklassig, exklusiv
to be a class act — große Klasse sein (inf)

3. vt
einordnen, klassifizieren
he was classed with the servants — er wurde genauso eingestuft wie die Diener

4. vi
eingestuft werden, sich einordnen lassen
* * *

class [klɑːs; US klæs]

A s

1. Klasse f ( auch BIOL), Gruppe f, Kategorie f, Art f

2. (Wert)Klasse f:

be in the same class with gleichwertig sein mit;

be (in) a class by oneself ( oder of one’s own) eine Klasse für sich sein;

be no class umg minderwertig sein

3. (Güte)Klasse f, Qualität f

4. BAHN etc Klasse f

5. a) gesellschaftlicher Rang, soziale Stellung

b) (Gesellschafts) Klasse f, (Bevölkerungs) Schicht f:

pull class on sb umg jemanden seine gesellschaftliche Überlegenheit fühlen lassen

6. umg Klasse f umg, Erstklassigkeit f:

he (it) has class er (es) ist (große) Klasse

7. SCHULE

a) (Schul) Klasse f:

be at the top of one’s class der Klassenerste sein

b) (Unterrichts)Stunde f:

attend classes am Unterricht teilnehmen

8. Kurs m

9. UNIV US

a) Studenten pl eines Jahrgangs, Studentenjahrgang m

b) Promotionsklasse f

c) Seminar n

10. UNIV Br

a) → honors degree

b) Stufe f, Gruppe f, Klasse f (Einteilung der Kandidaten nach dem Resultat der honours- Prüfung):

take a class einen honours degree erlangen

11. MIL Rekrutenjahrgang m

12. MATH Aggregat n, mehrgliedrige Zahlengröße

B v/t klassifizieren:

a) in Klassen einteilen

b) in eine Klasse einteilen, einordnen, einstufen:

class with gleichstellen mit, rechnen zu;

be classed

a) angesehen oder betrachtet werden (as als),

b) UNIV Br einen honours degree verliehen bekommen

C v/i angesehen werden (as als)

cl. abk

1. class

2. classification

3. clergyman

4. clerk

5. cloth

* * *
1. noun
1) (group in society) Gesellschaftsschicht, die; Klasse, die (Soziol.); (system) Klassensystem, das

2) (Educ.) Klasse, die; (Sch.): (lesson) Stunde, die; (Univ.): (seminar etc.) Übung, die

a French class — eine Französischstunde

3) (group [according to quality]) Klasse, die

be in a class by itself or on its own/of one's own or by oneself — eine Klasse für sich sein

4) (coll.): (quality) Klasse, die (ugs.)
2. transitive verb
einordnen

class something as something — etwas als etwas einstufen

* * *

(form) (school) n.

Schulklasse f. n.

(§ pl.: classes)

= Klasse -n f.

Kurs -e m.

Kursus -e (Bildung) m.

Stand ¨-e m. v.

einordnen v.

English-german dictionary > class

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social students

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social students

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